Faculty of Business and Law Research Day

A Blended Value Proposition: Towards a Regional Sustainability Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Framework for the Social and Solidarity Economy in the Liverpool City Region

Garth Dallas — 2024-03-04

Introduction

“There is no alternative” (TINA) is a slogan that is strongly associated with Margaret Thatcher. The phrase is used to signify Thatcher’s claim that capitalism is the best economic system, based on her belief in a so-called moral society where the State is not responsible for everything, and people have freedom to make their own choices (Berlinski, 2011). This led many to believe that capitalism is indeed without alternatives (Altvater, 2006).

In a world where large multinational companies are still dominating the global economy (Jara, 2017) with increasing inequalities (Camdessus, 2019) and income disparities (Dao et al., 2019), the discourse on alternative or diverse economies has gained momentum (Fisher, 2022). This study is motivated by one of the developing alternative economy approaches to capitalism; namely the concept of the Social and Solidarity Economy (SSE). Over recent years the SSE has gained increasing visibility, but there remains a need to overcome the challenges that have historically hindered the mainstreaming of the SSE as a viable alternative economic system (Utting, 2016).

Morais and Di Meglio (2018) contend that one of the main challenges to the strengthening of the SSE is the establishment of an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem for the SSE. This study aims to fill a gap in the research on of an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem for the SSE by first delving into the emerging academic fields of Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, Sustainable Entrepreneurial Ecosystem and, Sustainable SSE Entrepreneurial Ecosystem.

There are examples of some places in the world that have implemented Entrepreneurial Ecosystems for the SSE. Exploratory analysis of those in Canada (Quebec), Spain (Barcelona) and, Luxemburg will be conducted to uncover the interconnected elements, mechanisms, legal measures, and policy levers that have enabled their structural integration. These will form a benchmark for developing a Sustainable SSE Entrepreneurial Ecosystem for the Liverpool City Region (LCR).

The LCR, comprising the six boroughs of Liverpool, Sefton, Wirral, Knowsley, St Helens, and Halton, has been the subject of extensive research across various disciplines, shedding light on its social, economic, and cultural dynamics. One such study, conducted by Thompson et al. (2020), presented findings from a case study of the LCR’s social economy, highlighting the scale, scope, and value of its social economy. Their research provides valuable insights into the social fabric and economic dynamics of the LCR social economy, and this research responds to their call for future research in this field.

In 2020, during the Covid-19 pandemic, the LCR declared its ambition to ‘Build Back Better’ a “fairer, greener and more equal” city region that is “the most progressive, values and ethics led economy in Europe” (LCRCA, 2020, p.1-2). At the core of this ambition are six principles that embody people-focused recovery, environmental sustainability, and the development of an inclusive and supportive LCR Entrepreneurial Ecosystem. This provides an opportunity for this research to explore how sustainability can be embedded in an LCR SSE Entrepreneurial Ecosystem.

Research Question

“How can a sustainability-oriented Social and Solidarity Economy (SSE) Entrepreneurial Ecosystem be developed in the Liverpool City Region?”

Literature Review

Over recent years the SSE has gained increasing economic, social, and political significance, culminating in the UN International Labour Organisation (ILO) adopting the very first universal definition of the SSE in 2023. The ILO defines the SSE as a concept that designates organisations and enterprises, particularly cooperatives, mutual benefit societies, associations, foundations (CMAF), social enterprises, and other entities that are engaged in economic, social, and environmental activities (ILO, 2023). These organisations and enterprises share various social values and principles that place people and the environment over profit (ILO, 2023). Whilst the 2023 ILO definition signals a strong acknowledgment of the SSE and is an important step in its institutionalisation, there remains a need to overcome the challenges that Utting (2016) identified as being the barriers to the mainstreaming of the SSE. The formation of the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem for the SSE is a fundamental tool for the strengthening of the SSE (Morais & Bacic, 2020), and has been highlighted as one such challenge.

In spite of a growing scholarly interest in Entrepreneurial Ecosystems, a review of the literature has revealed that researchers have struggled to reach a consensus on its definition and the concept remains loosely defined and measured (Stam & van de Ven, 2021). Overall, Entrepreneurial Ecosystems are a set of interconnected social, political, economic, and cultural elements within a region (Spigel, 2017) that formally and informally coalesce to connect, mediate, and govern the performance within the local or regional entrepreneurial environment (Mason & Brown, 2014).

It was Isenberg (2011) who initially gave a logical and influential model of an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem while connecting its features with the economic growth and development of any country or region. He identified six elements as key determinants of the dynamics of an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem. Those factors are favourable culture, workable policies, financial availability, capable human resource, enabled market mechanisms and subsequently a range of institutional support.

A recent study by Audretsch et al. (2023) investigated how the sustainability orientation of Entrepreneurial Ecosystem actors shapes outcomes and proposes that sustainability orientation could become the 7^th and the most important pillar of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems. In relation to Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, they define sustainability orientation as the extent to which actors balance social and environmental initiatives along with economic considerations that ultimately help to increase the level of sustainable-oriented entrepreneurial activity (Audretsch et al., 2023).

The SSE presents itself as an alternative economy that seeks environmental, economic, and social sustainability, promoting collective ownership and equality in the means of production (Telles et al., 2017). Accordingly, it is unclear why the organisations and enterprises that make up the SSE have rarely been the subject of Entrepreneurial Ecosystem research (Catala et al., 2023), despite the growing incorporation of the ecosystem perspective into numerous government policies.

Traditionally the SSE and for-profit businesses have generally been considered incompatible (Utting, 2016). However, the 2023 ILO definition of the SSE (ILO, 2023) offers an opportunity for research into this assumption of incompatibility, particularly as it refers to the inclusion of other entities that share the values and principles of the SSE (ILO, 2023). Indeed, there is a growing body of literature that focuses on for-profit enterprises that purposefully generate economic, social, and environmental value providing ‘Blended Value Proposition’ first articulated by Jed Emerson in the early 2000s (Nogales Muriel, 2023). Furthermore, in contextualising social entrepreneurship Seelos and Mair (2005 p.243) declared that there is no such thing as ‘non-social’ entrepreneurship. Since then, the concept of blended value has gained attention in the context of entrepreneurship. Blended value models have been proposed as comprehensive and coherent frameworks for business sustainability, offering a progressive approach to harnessing the Sustainable Development Goals for businesses (Redman, 2018). Furthermore, the notion of blended value has been linked to the broader discourse on shared value, corporate social responsibility, stakeholder theory, and social innovation (Voola & Voola, 2020). These are all consistent with the other substantive concepts, along with the aim of this study.

Aim

This research aims to propose a Blended-Value inclusive sustainability-oriented SSE Entrepreneurial Ecosystem Framework in the LCR. The Framework will be based on the global SSE principles, and the diverse characteristics of the region’s entrepreneurial communities, and the requisite legal and policy levers.

Relevance and Impact

This study provides new insights into the academic field of entrepreneurship by advancing knowledge on the relationship between Social Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, Sustainable Entrepreneurship, and the SSE as a burgeoning and credible alternative economic system. The importance and originality of this study are that it aims to propose a new guidance framework for a novel LCR Blended Value, inclusive SSE Entrepreneurial Ecosystem.

References

Altvater, E., 2007. The capitalist energy system and the crisis of the global financial markets: The impact on labour. Labour, Capital and Society/Travail, capital et société, pp.18-34.

Audretsch, D.B., Belitski, M., Eichler, G.M. et al. Entrepreneurial ecosystems, institutional quality, and the unexpected role of the sustainability orientation of entrepreneurs. Small Bus Econ (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-023-00763-5

Camdessus, M., 2018. Growing Inequality: What Can We Do? Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, 10(1–3), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974910119851600.

Catala, B., Savall, T. and Chaves-Avila, R., 2023. From entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystems to the social economy ecosystem. Journal of Business Research, 163, p.113932.

Dao, M.C., Das, M. and Koczan, Z., 2019. Why is labour receiving a smaller share of global income? Economic Policy, 34(100), pp.723-759.

Fisher, M., 2022. Capitalist realism: Is there no alternative? John Hunt Publishing.

ILO., 2023. Resolution concerning decent work and the social and solidarity economy. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_848633.pdf

Isenberg, D., 2011. The Entrepreneurship Ecosystem Strategy as a New Paradigm for Economic Policy: Principles for Cultivating Entrepreneurship. Institute of International and European Affairs, Dublin, Ireland, 12 May 2011, 1-13.

Jara, A., 2017. The future of globalization under new political realities. Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, 9(1-3), pp.75-85.

Liverpool City Region Combined Authority (LCRCA), 2020. Building Back Better. Our Economic Recovery Plan: for a globally competitive, environmentally responsible, and socially inclusive Liverpool City Region. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/600e9682e90e071433ef8c06/LCRCA_BBB_2020.pdf

Mason, C. and Brown, R., 2014. Entrepreneurial ecosystems and growth oriented entrepreneurship. Final report to OECD, Paris, 30(1), pp.77-102.

Morais, L. and Bacic, M., 2020. Social and solidarity economy and the need for its Entrepreneuring Ecosystem: current challenges in Brazil. Ciriec-España Revista De Economía Pública Social Y Cooperativa, (98), 5. https://doi.org/10.7203/ciriec-e.98.14138

Nogales Muriel, R., 2023. Social innovation, social enterprises and the cultural economy: cultural and artistic social enterprise in practice. (No Title).

Redman, A., 2018. Harnessing the sustainable development goals for businesses: a progressive framework for action. Business Strategy &Amp; Development, 1(4), 230-243. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsd2.33

Seelos, C. and Mair, J., 2005. Social entrepreneurship: Creating new business models to serve the poor. Business horizons, 48(3), pp.241-246.

Spigel, B., 2017. The relational organization of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 41(1), pp.49-7

Stam, E., van de Ven, A., 2021. Entrepreneurial ecosystem elements. Small Bus Econ 56, 809–832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00270-6

Telles, L. B., Macedo, L. M., & Bittencourt, J. V. M., 2017. Brazilian solidarity economy rural organizations: validating performance evaluation criteria based on decision makers’ perception. Sustainability, 9(6), 945. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9060945

Thompson, M., Southern, A., & Heap, H., 2020. Anchoring the social economy at the metropolitan scale: findings from the Liverpool City Region. Urban Studies, 59(4), 675-697. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098020972654

Utting, P., 2016. Mainstreaming Social and Solidarity Economy: opportunities and risks for policy change. UNSSE: unsse. org.

Voola, A. P. and Voola, R., 2020. Paradigms of development frameworks using gender equality strategies. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69625-6_44-1

Highflyers navigating potential turbulence ahead – a phenomenological study about airline pilot experiences of the menopause

June Potts — 2024-03-04

Introduction, research question, aim and objectives

According to the Taylor Review (2017), work is a critical right and a force for good. Despite this, the Women and Equality Committee (2022) study found that 72% of UK workplaces have yet to implement reasonable adjustments to support and retain female employees during and beyond menopause. This study employs an interpretive phenomenological approach to explore the experiences of airline pilots in evaluating the effectiveness of menopause support in restrictive workspaces: dynamic work environments subject to unpredictable change (Claessen & de Lange, 2015). The study uses thematic analysis and listening theory (Gilligan et al., 2003) to analyse qualitative interview data. By exploring the intersection of two critical topics: menopause in the workplace (Bryson, et al., 2022; Steffan, 2020) and increasing female participation in the commercial airline industry (ICAO, 2023; McCarthy et al., 2015) opportunity exists to transform attitudes, workplace culture, menopause guidance and practice to address this business problem to find sustainable solutions. The research aims to uncover valuable insights to create an inclusive and enabling work culture that supports menopause and promotes collaboration among stakeholders.

1.1. Research questions

What are the lived experiences of airline pilots working through menopause, and can shared insights inform menopause policy and strategy to better serve employee needs?
Does work impact menopause, or does menopause impact work?

1.2. Aims and objectives

The research aims to develop a sustainable business model to shape workplace culture, policy, and design to attract, recruit and retain airline pilots during and beyond menopause. The research objectives will i) establish if restricted work environments contribute to the experience of those working through the menopause, ii) evaluate the effectiveness of workplace menopause support and guidance to establish if needs are being met, iii) capture co-worker reactions to menopause reasonable adjustment, iv) establish what workplace support pilots require to remain productive, connected and valid during the menopause.

Justification

With governments encouraging retention of older workers and the average retirement age rising, women can spend over a third of their working life in work (Carter, et al., 2021). This research explores how women’s menopausal health impacts work and how restrictive workplaces can impact menopause health, a circular debate yet to be determined (Atkinson, et al., 2020; Verdonk, et al., 2022). Given the growth in women pursuing careers in aviation, it is crucial to gain insights into attitudes to menopause and "how women pilots adapt to survive in the industry" (Gorlin & Bridges, 2021, pg. 2). A daunting prospect in an industry where gender based discrimination is prevalent (Gorlin & Bridges, 2021; ICAO, 2023). Mills (2006) argues that gendered practices ingrained in aviation culture offer unique opportunities for positive change. A more equitable and inclusive industry culture can be achieved by reframing and addressing pervasive norms and adopting measures to support recruitment, retention and the positive employment experience of all pilots, irrespective of gender.

Literature review

In 2022, the House of Commons Women and Equality Committee recommended employers provide personalised policies and training to support menopausal employees. Although guidance and training about menopause are more readily available, due to the taboo surrounding the topic (Grandey, et al., 2020), there is still a significant lack of strategic implementation (Hardy, et al., 2019). This has created a gap in effectively integrating menopause support within different workplace contexts (Verdonk, et al., 2022), with broad based blanket policies proving to have little impact at an organisational level (Steffan, 2020). Gibbon (2014) highlights the potential for tension and resentment among colleagues when gender policies lack diversity protocols, leading to perceptions of special treatment, which can create conflicts. This was evidenced by the UK Government rejecting calls to trial menopause leave, deeming it discriminatory towards men and counterproductive for women (The Conversation, 2023). Inclusive work environments enable employees to voice their concerns about how work impacts their health, engagement, motivation, performance, and relationships (Rees, et al., 2021). Promoting the benefits of an inclusive workforce, Riach and Jack (2021) suggest centralising menopause policy decisions to enhance workforce capability. A crucial point in policy decision-making is understanding the experiences of those going through menopause, which negatively impactsthree in five UK working women, with one in ten leaving jobs unsupported (Women and Equality Committee, 2022). Co-designed policies to reflect functional working environments in the specific context of implementation and evaluation can help to promote collaborative menopause support at work (Voorberg, et al., 2015).

Theoretical basis

A gender-related topic rooted in liberal feminist theory, the research uses a phenomenological interpretive lens of hermeneutical idealist philosophy to provide a ‘self’ experience of phenomena (Groenewald, 2004). To ensure the research output is reinforced, the principles of inclusive climate theory (Nishii, 2013) and social stigma theory (Link & Phelan, 2001) are utilised to provide a nuanced analysis of a gender-related issue.

Research design

This study uses a qualitative research design with purposive sampling via LinkedIn. Forty online, semi-structured, in-depth interviews using Microsoft Teams are planned. Data analysis uses thematic and listening guide methodology (Gilligan et al., 2003) to explore subjectivity and extract multiple voices within interview transcripts to compose I-poems. The research follows an anonymous approach, capturing female pilots' and co-workers' views and experiences to inform decision-making and future-proof policies.

References

Atkinson, C., Beck, V., Brewis, J., Davies, A. and Duberley, J., 2020. Menopause and the workplace: Human Resource Management Journal.

Bryson, A., Conti, G., Hardy, R., Peycheva, D. and Sullivan, A., 2022. The consequences of early menopause and menopause symptoms for labour market participation. Social Science & Medicine, 293, p.114676.

Carter, S, Ollie, J. and Black, K. (2021). "Talking about menopause in the workplace. Case Reports in Women's Health.

Claessen, A., de Lange, P. (2016) Lessons for supporting policy influencing in restrictive environments. Development in Practice, 26:5, 544-554DOI,10.1080/09614524.2016.1188881

Gibbon, D., 2014. Unexpected turbulence: The barriers and challenges faced by women pilots in the Australian Defence Force (Doctoral dissertation, UNSW Sydney).

Gilligan, C., Spencer, R., Weinberg, M.K. and Bertsch, T., 2003. On the Listening Guide: A voice-centered relational method.

Godfrey, M. A., Goulis, D.G., Griffiths, A., (2021). Global consensus recommendations on menopause in the workplace: A European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) position statement. Maturitas,151, pp.55-62.

Gorlin, I. and Bridges, D., 2021. Aviation culture: A ‘Glass Sky’ for women pilots-literature review. International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 8(2), p.13.

Grandey, A.A., Gabriel, A.S. and King, E.B., 2020. Tackling taboo topics: A review of the three M s in working women’s lives. Journal of Management, 46(1), pp.7-35.

Groenewald, T. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International journal of qualitative methods, 3(1), pp.42-55.

Hardy, C., Griffiths, A. and Hunter, M. S. (2017) ‘What do working menopausal women want? A qualitative investigation into women’s perspectives on employer and line manager support’, Maturitas. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.04.011

ICAO. (2023) Global Aviation Gender Summit: A call to action.

Link, B.G. and Phelan, J.C., 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annual review of Sociology, 27(1)

McCarthy, F., Budd, L. and Ison, S., 2015. Gender on the flight deck: Experiences of women commercial airline pilots in the UK. Journal of air transport management, 47, pp.32-38.

Mills, A.J., 2006. The Gendering of Civil Aviation, 1919–24. (pp. 21-47). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Nishii, L.H., 2013. The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. Academy of Management journal, 56(6), pp.1754-1774.

Rees, M., Bitzer, J., Cano, A., Ceausu, I., Chedraui, P., Durmusoglu, F., Erkkola, R., Geukes,

Riach, K. and Jack, G. (2021) ‘Women’s health in/and work: Menopause as an intersectional

experience’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.

Steffan, B., 2021. Managing menopause at work: The contradictory nature of identity talk. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(1), pp.195-214.

Taylor, M., Marsh, G., Nicol, D. and Broadbent, P., 2017. Good work: The Taylor review of modern working practices (p. 11). London: Department for Business, Energy & Industry.

The Conversation (2023) The-uk-government-may-have-rejected-menopause-protectionsbut-workplaces-are-more-supportive-than-ever-198935

Verdonk, P., Bendien, E. and Appelman, Y., 2022. Menopause and work: A narrative literature review about menopause, work and health. Work, 72(2), pp.483-496.

Voorberg, W.H., Bekkers, V.J. and Tummers, L.G., 2015. A systematic review of co-creation and co-production: Embarking on the social innovation journey. Public management review, 17(9), pp.1333-1357.

Women and Equality Committee (2022) Menopause and the workplace survey. UK Parliamentary Report.

Exploring Dynamic capabilities of Design thinking for Digital transformation of UK SMEs Towards Paradigmatic Innovation

Calvin Moore — 2024-03-04

Introduction

The rapid advancement of technologies like Internet of Things (IOT), Big data and Artificial Intelligence (AI), has brought about transformative changes to industries globally. In the context of the United Kingdom (UK), Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) are integral to economic growth. The economic landscape of the UK is significantly influenced by SMEs, making their adoption of innovative strategies crucial. Design thinking, a human-centric approach to problem-solving, stands out as a potent methodology. Its potential impact on digital transformation and paradigmatic innovation within SMEs needs a comprehensive exploration.

However, there is a critical gap in understanding how SMEs strategically leverage design thinking as dynamic capabilities for digital transformation, particularly in achieving paradigmatic innovation. This research aims to bridge this gap by investigating the dynamic capabilities of design thinking in driving digital transformation for UK SMEs, leading to innovative shifts in their operational paradigms. Recognizing this, the research focuses on elucidating the role of design thinking as a dynamic capability for reshaping how UK SMEs approach digital transformation and achieve ground-breaking innovation.

Research question

How do dynamic capabilities of design thinking help UK SMEs in understanding user needs through interactive prototyping and by providing empathy-driven solutions?

How do UK SMEs sense changes and seize opportunities through design-led strategies in the digital environment?

Aim of research

The aim of this research is to comprehensively investigate how SMEs in the United Kingdom utilise design thinking as a dynamic capability for digital transformation.

The primary objectives of this research are as follows:

To Investigate the specific dynamic capabilities within design thinking that UK SMEs prioritizes for digital transformation.
ii. Uncover challenges and barriers encountered by UK SMEs in developing design thinking capabilities crucial for digital transformation.
iii. Assess the impact of design thinking capabilities on the outcomes of digital transformation initiatives within UK SMEs.
iv. Propose actionable strategies to enhance the effective utilization of design thinking capabilities by UK SMEs, overcoming barriers and maximizing the outcomes of their digital transformation initiatives.

Literature Review:

The literature review delves into the transformative potential of design thinking and its relevance to digital transformation in SMEs. It establishes the significance of design thinking as a driver for innovation, especially in the context of the UK business landscape. The review also explores challenges and opportunities associated with integrating design thinking into SME digital transformation strategies. The impact of Digital Transformation spans healthcare, finance, manufacturing and consulting, with vital integration for SMES economic development in the UK (OECD, 2021, OECD, 2023). The UK, a global Ai research hub, ranks among the top five countries due to significant Research and Development investments, exemplified by the initiative like the AI sector deal (Sjödin et al., 2021). Despite these strides SMEs face constraints hindering the full integration of digital transformation particularly due to the inability of SMEs to enact digital transformation towards innovation that is more meaningful to people.

Digital transformation offers automation, data analytics and cost reduction (Selamat and Windasari, 2021), and practical applications in customer service, predictive maintenance and supply chain management. The promising future of Digital Transformation for UK SMEs lies in dynamic capabilities of design thinking (Magistretti et al., 2021).

Theoretical Framework:

The research adopts a theoretical framework that integrates the principles of design thinking as dynamic capabilities. By drawing on established theories related to dynamic capabilities, the study aims to provide a structured understanding of how design thinking contributes to the adaptability and innovation potential of SMEs.

Dynamic Capabilities Theory guides this study, emphasizing adaptable resources and capabilities for Digital Transformation of UK SMEs towards paradigmatic innovation. It identifies the barriers, the resource limitations and the dynamic capabilities of design thinking towards innovation.

Research Design:

A qualitative research methodology will be employed to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of design thinking on digital transformation and paradigmatic innovation in UK SMEs. The methodology includes semi-structured interviews, case studies, and document analysis of 25 UK SMEs actively engaged in digital transformation initiatives and demonstrating a commitment to design thinking principles. This approach ensures information-rich cases for in-depth exploration.

Data Collection and Analysis:

Semi-structured interviews with key decision-makers and detailed case studies will provide a nuanced understanding of how design thinking is operationalized in the digital transformation context. Thematic and document analysis will be employed to identify patterns and trends in the data.

Expected Contributions:

The outcomes of this study will extend the existing knowledge on design thinking as dynamic capabilities for SMEs in the UK. It will offer actionable insights for SMEs to enhance their digital transformation strategies, leveraging design thinking principles to achieve paradigmatic innovation. The research aims to contribute to the academic discourse on the strategic role of design thinking in the digital evolution of SMEs.

Discussion of the relevance and practical importance of the study

Understanding the dynamic capabilities of Design thinking is important for SMEs as a paradigm shift calls for a new way in which SMEs think about innovation. SMEs will begin to check the reasonability of innovation and thereby develop new skill set when it comes to innovation.

This study will contribute to strategies to enhance the effective utilization of design thinking capabilities by UK SMEs, overcoming barriers and maximizing the outcomes of their digital transformation initiatives.

References

MAGISTRETTI, S., PHAM, C. T. A. & DELL'ERA, C. 2021. Enlightening the dynamic capabilities of design thinking in fostering digital transformation. Industrial Marketing Management, 97, 59-70.

OECD 2021. The Digital Transformation of SMEs and Entrepreneurship, OECD Publishing, Paris.

OECD 2023. OECD Employment Outlook 2023: Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris.

SELAMAT, M. A. & WINDASARI, N. A. 2021. Chatbot for SMEs: Integrating customer and business owner perspectives. Technology in Society, 66, 101685.

SJÖDIN, D., PARIDA, V., PALMIÉ, M. & WINCENT, J. 2021. How AI capabilities enable business model innovation: Scaling AI through co-evolutionary processes and feedback loops. Journal of Business Research, 134, 574-587.

Questions of Identity; Defining Peoplehood for the Purposes of Internal Self-Determination in Wales

Olivia Brennan — 2024-03-04

Introduction

Self-determination is a human right, claimed by a ‘people’ to control their own destiny when they feel they have been unjustifiably excluded from the community of individuals recognised by international law. (Berman, 1988) It permits people to participate in the democratic process of governance and to influence one’s future politically, socially, and culturally within their state. (Barker, 2015) Although this inherent group right is applicable to all humans, an issue arises when a group of persons claim a right to self-determination, as it forms the question, does the said group constitute a ‘people’ for the purposes of self-determination, as the scope of the term a ‘people’ is not clear. (Suksi, 2005) Within international law, there are few other principles that the status, content, and scope of which are so uncertain and so frequently contested. It is deemed to be ‘Jekyll and Hyde’ in its character by the academic Sparks, who described the right to be a “dangerous and anarchic force” which is “simultaneously lauded as an essential principle of the legal system and one of the core purposes of the United Nations”. (Sparks, 2023) Despite the perplexity surrounding this topic, its importance was illustrated in the East Timor judgement, where it was stated “In the Court’s view, Portugal’s assertion that the right of peoples to self-determination, as it evolved from the Charter and from the United Nations practice has an erga omnes character, is irreproachable…it is one of the essential principles of contemporary international law.” (Portugal v Australia, 1995) When considering peoplehood and its application to suffice the requirements of self-determination, frequent reference is made to a ‘shared identity’ between a group of individuals, a shared identity that is so distinct it renders the group as vastly different from the others they share their State with. In the Cameroon case, identity was described as an innate characteristic within a people, where external people must recognise such existence and to not deny it. (Mgwanga Gunme v Cameroon, 2009) The notion of what a ‘people’ is, feels as though it should be an easy conversation, we know we exist, we have names, long histories, and shared cultures, but the open-ended questions of “what is a people?” invokes more confusion and debate than any other topic within customary international law. It is correct to speak of the right of a ‘people’ when such entities lack clarity as to their accurate meaning? If the denial of self-determination to a people within a State possesses the ability to trigger a possible right to remedial secession, there will first need to be greater clarity on the meaning of the term ‘peoplehood’. (Koskenniemi, 1994) Due to this clear lack of clarity, my research aims to identify the parameters of peoplehood, whilst considering the complexities as to why States remain reluctant to provide a universally agreed definition of peoplehood. I will be using Wales as a case study to assess whether the identified parameters of peoplehood can allow the Welsh community to be acknowledge by the international community as a separate ‘people’ for the purposes of satisfying internal self-determination.

Research Questions

What role does international legislation play in the recognition and protection of group identities?
What are the influencing reasons why self-determination groups desire internal self-determination?
What are the specified challenges international law faces when recognising and attempting to protect group identity?
What are the identified parameters of peoplehood for the purposes of internal self-determination?

Literature Review

The debate around peoplehood is not a contemporary topic. It is thought by some that Aristotle was the first to discuss the norm-based conception of what a ‘people’ is, as such discourse can be traced back to BCE. The concept was spoken about by Aristotle in Book III of the Politics, where he suggested to establish the true nature of a polity, and to form adequate governance of such polity, we must first consider who constitutes the people. In other attempts to form a shared understanding of peoplehood, the voice of the people has previously been likened to the voice of God, as Machiavelli suggested, inferring the importance of the people’s voice in a society. (Polansky, 2023)

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) are both international human rights treaties, with the aim of protecting individuals and groups against any actions or omissions that interfere with their fundamental freedoms, entitlements, and human dignity. (UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2006) Both the ICCPR and the ICESCR share an identical Article 1, which states “All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.”

Under the principle of self-determination, a group who share a common identity and have a link to a defined territory are allowed to decide their political future in a democratic fashion. For the group to exercise its entitlement to the collective right, it must qualify as a ‘people’. (Sterio, 2012) A two-part test has been established to evaluate the group determining if they classify as a people, with the first part being an objective test questioning to what extent its members share a common racial background, ethnicity, language, religion, history, and cultural heritage, as well as territorial integrity of the area which the group is claiming. The second part of the test is subjective, it examines the extent to which the individuals within the group self-consciously perceive themselves collectively as a distinct ‘people’ and the degree to which the group could form a viable political entity. (Crawford, 1999) Internal self-determination is known to encompass the governance of peoples within the State which they belong too, (Wilson, 2009) and it is generally understood to be the systematic involvement of all groups in their national democratic process, allowing the preservation of their cultural identity and their development to be on an equal footing with the majority population.

The notion of Welsh identity can be traced back to the 5^th century, following the Roman withdrawal from Britain, but Wales has been far more closely assimilated into the English state than either Scotland or Northern Ireland has. It is hard to pinpoint when the rise of Welsh national consciousness truly began to happen, but the derogatory treatment of Welsh people throughout history is often considered pivotal to the ethnic divide. When considering potential causes that heighten a group identity that distinctly differs from the identity of the majority, Wales possesses a vast history of alienating treatment that has arguably contributed to their need for internal self-determination. In 1847, Brâd y Llyfrau Gleison (The Treachery of the Blue Books) occurred, in which a report about an inquiry into the condition of education throughout Wales was conducted. The infamous report was commissioned by Parliament in Westminster, with the aim to provide a reform of education in Wales, but this was overshadowed by the reports attitude towards the Welsh people and their language, Cymraeg. In their report, the Blue Books stated “The Welsh language is a vast drawback to Wales, and a manifold barrier to the moral progress and commercial prosperity of the people. It is not easy to over-estimate its evil effects. It is the language of the Cymri, and anterior to that of the ancient Britons. It dissevers the people from intercourse which would greatly advance their civilisation, and bars access of improving knowledge to their minds. As a proof of this, there is no Welsh literature worthy of the name.” (Commissioners of Inquiry, 1847) Consequently, after this report was published, there was a monumental shift in the way the Welsh language was perceived both within Wales, and by its neighbours. This was depicted in a report made by the Times of London in 1929, building upon the work of Matthew Arnold’s ‘Celtic Literature’ (Leerssen, 2006) where it was stated that “the Welsh language is the curse of Wales. Its prevalence and the ignorance of English have excluded, and even now exclude the Welsh people from the civilisation of their English neighbours…If it is desirable that the Welsh should talk English, it is monstrous folly to encourage them in a loving fondness for their old language…The sooner all Welsh specialities disappear from the face of the Earth the better.” (Welsh Outlook, 1929)

Aims and Objectives

My work aims to identify the parameters of peoplehood for the purposes of internal self-determination, through researching the challenges faced by law makers, such as ensuring the protection of group identity in self-determination claims. One objective of mine is to give recognition to the needs of minority groups and their claim for self-determination, acknowledging the reasons why they wish to identify outside their governing State, and if the international community can provide adequate protection to such groups. Another aim of my research is that it will have a beneficial impact on the legal community regarding minority and indigenous people’s rights, as it is clear such groups benefit from research into the unclear legislation surrounding legislation, offering a deeper understanding of the topic, and providing legislative clarity to smaller ethno-national groups. I also hope that my research can add to Liverpool John Moores University’s academic standing, as my project closely aligns with the University’s ambition to expand international and civic engagement through globally recognised research through placing societal diversity and minority groups at the centre of the analysis.

Justification for Research

I believe that my research is extremely relevant to domestic scenarios, such as post-Brexit United Kingdom, which has saw a continuing rise in the support for devolved independence in Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, which will be discussed throughout my Welsh case study, questioning if people’s national identity is a large driving factor in the heightened support for their desired sovereignty. My project will offer a refreshing contribution to the current existing work in the self-determination field, by providing a focal point on Welsh group identity and conservation, and its direct relationship with internal self-determination. In identifying the parameters of peoplehood, the research I am conducting, additionally aims to provide to the contribution of acknowledging marginalised minority groups and indigenous people’s rights, offering a greater understanding of the needs of smaller communities and the protection of them. My work will advance the knowledge of socio-political and legal challenges that face those who desire self-determination, such as self-determination being enshrined in the United Nations Charter, ICCPR and ICESCR, yet States displaying clear reluctant to work on indigenous issues, illustrated by the slow development of the Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly for adoption.

References

Barker, J. (2015) Self-Determination. Critical Ethnic Studies, 1 (1), pp.11-26.

Berman, N. (1988). Sovereignty in Abeyance: Self-Determination and International Law. Wisconsin International Law Journal, 7 (1), pp.51-105.

Commissioners of Inquiry. (1847) Reports of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales, Part 2: Brecknock, Cardigan, Radnor and Monmouth. London, William Clowes and Sons.

Crawford, J. (1999) State Practice and International Law in Relation to Secession. British Yearbook of International Law, 69 (1), pp.85-117.

Koskenniemi M. (1994) National Self-Determination Today: Problems of Legal Theory and Practice. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 43, pp.241-269.

Leerssen, J. (2006) Englishness, Ethnicity and Matthew Arnold. European Journal of English Studies, 10 (1), pp.63-79.

Sparks, T. (2023) Self-Determination in the International Legal System. Oxford, Hart Publishing.

Sterio, M. (2012) The Right to Self-Determination under International Law: Selfistans, Secession, and the Rule of the Great Powers. Oxford, Taylor & Francis.

Suksi, M. (2006) Keeping the Lid on the Secession Kettle – a Review of Legal Interpretations concerning Claims of Self-Determination by Minority Populations. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 12, pp.189-226.

Office of the United Nations. (2006) Frequently Asked Questions on a Human-Rights Based Approach to Development Co-operation. New York and Geneva, United Nations. HR/PUB/06/8

Welsh Outlook. (1929) The Welsh Outlook: Where there is no vision the people perish, 16 (3), pp.67-98.

Wilson, G. (2009) Self-Determination, Recognition and Kosovo. Netherlands International Law Review, pp.455-481.

Cases

Kevin Mgwanga Gunme et al v Cameroon (2009) Communication No.266/03, Paragraph 179

East Timor (Portugal v Australia), Judgement (1995) ICJ Reports 90, Paragraph 29

Exploring the career aspirations of women in management accounting

Karen Godfrey — 2024-03-04

Background

Despite men and women entering the UK accounting profession in equal numbers (Financial Reporting Council, 2022), there remains a significant underrepresentation of women in senior roles across all branches of the profession (GAAPweb, 2023). This is somewhat evidenced by a recent survey of accounting professionals (GAAPweb, 2023) which shows women occupying 66% of entry level roles, 40% of mid-level management accounting roles and as little as 18% of executive roles in the profession. Recently, there have been indicators as to the existence of a gender related ‘aspirations-gap’ (Azmat, Cunat and Henry, 2020; Powell and Butterfield, 2022), with evidence to suggest that there has been a decline in women’s aspirations to reach top management positions over recent years. This begins with the very earliest workplace experiences (Olsen and LaGree, 2023) and prevails through middle management stages (Beaupre, 2022).

Research Aim and Objectives

This research aims to address this critical issue by understanding the factors that influence the career aspirations and trajectories of female management accountants (FMAs) in the UK, through exploring their lived experiences, and uncovering strategies to support their career advancement. The objectives are:

To identify the key factors that influence the career aspirations of FMAs.
To explore the obstacles to and enablers of career progression experienced by FMAs as they progress through their careers.
To understand how the experiences of FMAs shape perceptions of career opportunities and advancement.
To identify strategies and interventions that can be implemented to support the career advancement of women in management accounting.

Literature Review & Theoretical Framework

The complexity and interplay of barriers affecting women’s progression through their careers is widely evidenced (Einarsdottir et al., 2018). The literature shows that gender disparity at senior management levels has been attributed to various factors including: gender based stereotypes and bias (Dalton et al., 2014), demands of personal life (Haynes, 2017), lack of promotion and networking opportunities (Cohen et al., 2020) and gendered personality traits (Eagly and Wood, 2014). Although the challenges have been studied extensively in numerous contexts, there is little focus on management accounting roles in organisations. The impact of gender on career aspirations to senior management is a well-established area of study (Powell and Butterfield, 2022) and it has been suggested that gender differences in aspirations may contribute to the underrepresentation of women at the higher levels of the organisation (Fritz and van Knippenberg, 2020). A number of studies from the early part of the 21st century focussed on levels of career aspiration being lower in women than men (Belkin 2003; Litzky and Greenhaus, 2007). However, Hoobler, Lemmon and Wayne (2014) found no relationship between gender and aspirations towards senior management. Other research suggests that women’s aspirations are complex, and affected by a range of factors that are not constant at all stages of career development, but change over the course of time (O’Neil and Bilimoria, 2005; Coffman and Neuenfeldt, 2014).

Given the complexity of the issue, the research will use the theoretical models of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent et al., 1994) and the Kaleidoscope Career Model (KCM) (Mainiero and Sullivan, 2005). SCCT provides a framework for understanding the career aspirations of women by considering their self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals. Lent et al. (1994) maintain that gender has relevance to career development because of reactions to gender in the organisational environment, particularly in traditionally male careers (Erickson, 2013). The model, therefore, provides a cognitive framework for the research to explore the individual level factors that affect career aspirations and can help identify the specific issues that drive or hinder women's progression. The KCM complements the SCCT by taking into account the different stages of a career and the interplay of different factors. The three parameters of the KCM (authenticity, balance, and challenge) interact with the SCCT constructs to influence career aspirations and trajectories across different career stages.

Research Approach and Methodology

This study sits within the interpretivist philosophy, which relies upon description and interpretation instead of measurement and prediction (positivist) to develop an understanding of the ways through which the participants perceive and experience their career aspirations. Interpretivism emphasises the importance of the subjective interpretation of phenomena by individuals. Aligning with the interpretivist philosophy, the epistemological approach for this research is constructivist. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2017), researchers who decide to work from a constructivist position hold an assumption that “there is no objective truth to be known” (p.54) and emphasise the diversity of interpretations that can be applied to the world due to the subjective experience of the respondents. In fitting with the above, the qualitative methodology utilised in the study will be phenomenology. Phenomenology is appropriate for studying complex experiences (Denzin and Lincoln, 2017), such as career aspirations. It allows for a deeper exploration of the factors that shape these unique experiences and perspectives of women in their journeys through the profession.

Research Methods

Semi-structured interviews will be utilised to gather the stories of the FMAs, and is effective for qualitative research because it allows researchers to gain in-depth information from interviewees (Ruslin et al., 2022). The use of semi-structured interviews is likely to give participants the space and freedom to express their own perspectives in their own words (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). The study will employ a stratified, purposive sampling approach. This will allow ‘information-rich’ subjects to be selected (Patton, 1990). Participant inclusion criteria, therefore, will be developed to include women currently working, or with experience, in management accounting roles with membership to a professional accountancy body. This will generate a homogeneous sample who could provide a contextualised perspective on the topic area. The population for the interviews will be stratified to include participants within the three groups: early career, mid-career and later career. The findings from the early career sample can then be analysed and used to inform subsequent interviews with mid and later career FMAs. It is anticipated that thematic analysis will be employed as the primary data analysis method for the qualitative interviews. Thematic analysis is a widely used method in qualitative research that involves identifying patterns and themes within the data (Braun and Clarke, 2006). This method allows for a flexible yet systematic approach to analysing qualitative data, making it suitable for exploring complex and nuanced topics (Bell et al., 2022).

Importance and Future Impact

The underrepresentation of women in senior management accounting roles poses significant challenges to the accounting profession, organisations, and society as a whole. The impact of strong female representation at higher levels within the organisation has been researched over recent years, with studies highlighting significant benefits improved financial performance (Green and Homroy, 2018; Fernando et al., 2020). Furthermore, if women’s aspirations for higher positions dilute across different stages of their careers, the gender imbalance at senior levels could be perpetuated, limiting women's opportunities for career advancement in management accounting roles. The research offers potential impact for FMAs themselves, the organisations that employ them and the profession of management accounting. The study will inform organisational initiatives with implementable strategies to support the recruitment, retention, and advancement of FMAs throughout their career journeys, leading to more diverse and inclusive workplaces. The research can also empower FMAs by providing a greater insight into their career development, allowing them to make informed career decisions, set realistic goals, and develop strategies to overcome barriers. The study's findings can have implications for the broader profession of management accounting. By understanding the factors that influence women's career aspirations, the study can inform the development of policies, initiatives, and best practices within the profession.

References

Azmat, G., Cunat, V., and Henry, E. (2020) Gender promotion gaps: Career aspirations and workplace discrimination. Available at SSRN 3518420.

Beaupre, J. G. (2022) To lead or not to lead: Exploring how young women’s early career experiences impact their leadership ambition. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(8), p1064–1079.

Belkin, L. (2003) The opt-out revolution. New York Times Magazine, 26(10), 2003.

Bell, E., Bryman, A., and Harley, B. (2022) Business research methods. 6th ed. Oxford: OUP.

Braun V. and Clark V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2), p77– 101.

Coffman, J., and Neuenfeldt, B. (2014). Everyday moments of truth: Frontline managers are key to women’s career aspirations. NY: Bain and Company.

Cohen, J.R., Dalton, D.W., Holder-Webb, L.L. and McMillan, J.J. (2020) An analysis of glass ceiling perceptions in the accounting profession. Journal of Business Ethics, 164, p17-38.

Creswell, J. W. (2013) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). CA: Sage

Dalton, D., Cohen, J., Harp, N. and McMillan, J. (2014), Antecedents and consequences of perceived gender discrimination in the audit profession, Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory, 33, 3, p1-32

Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (2017) The Sage handbook of qualitative research. (5th ed.). CA: Sage.

Eagly, A. H., and Wood, W. (2014). Gender and influenceability: Stereotype versus behavior. Women, gender, and social psychology, p225-256 Psychology Press.

Einarsdottir, U. D., Christiansen, T. H., and Kristjansdottir, E. S. (2018) It’s a Man Who Runs the Show: How Women Middle-Managers Experience Their Professional Position, Opportunities, and Barriers.

Ericksen, J. A. (2013) Women pursuing non-traditional careers: A social cognitive career theory perspective, [online]. PhD Thesis, Cleveland State University.

Fernando, G. D., Jain, S. S., and Tripathy, A. (2020) This cloud has a silver lining: Gender diversity, managerial ability, and firm performance. Journal of business research, 117, p484-496.

Financial Reporting Council (FRC) (2022) Key Facts and Trends in the Accountancy Profession.

Fritz, C., and van Knippenberg, D. (2020) Gender and Leadership Aspiration: Supervisor Gender, Support, and Job Control. Applied Psychology, 69(3), pp.741–768.

GAAPWeb (2023) Salary Survey 2023. Available at: https://reachwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/GAAPweb_Salary_Survey_2023.pdf

Green, C., and Homroy, S. (2018) Female directors, board committees and firm performance. European Economic Review, 102(C), p19–38.

Haynes, K. (2017) Accounting as gendering and gendered: A review of 25 years of critical accounting research on gender. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 43, p110-124.

Hoobler, J. M., Lemmon, G., and Wayne, S. J. (2014). Women’s Managerial Aspirations: An Organizational Development Perspective. Journal of Management, 40(3), p703–730.

Kvale, S., and Brinkmann, S. (2009) Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. CA: Sage.

Litzky, B., and Greenhaus, J. (2007) The relationship between gender and aspirations to senior management. Career Development International, 12(7), p637–659.

Olsen, K., and LaGree, D. (2023) Taking action in the first five years to increase career equality: The impact of professional relationships on young women’s advancement. Gender in Management: An International Journal, (ahead-of-print).

O'Neil, D. A., and Bilimoria, D. (2005) Women's career development phases: Idealism, endurance, and reinvention. Career development international, 10(3), p168-189.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Powell, G. N., and Butterfield, D. A. (2022) Aspirations to top management over five decades: A shifting role of gender? Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(8), p953–968.

Ruslin, R., Mashuri, S., Rasak, M. S. A., Alhabsyi, F., and Syam, H. (2022) Semi-structured Interview: A methodological reflection on the development of a qualitative research instrument in educational studies. IOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education, 12(1), p22-29.

Economic and Social Rights and Liberal Democracy: Challenging the symbiotic relationship

Andrew Munro — 2024-03-04

Dominant approaches to human rights law, especially where economic and social rights are concerned, have not been effective. In light of the overlapping crises facing the world today in the form of environmental damage, geopolitical instability, pandemics, and the like, there may be ample opportunity to rethink the theoretical justifications for human rights and their expression in law. Failing to ground human rights law theoretically risks abandoning its rhetoric to those who may seek to use it for other purposes. Today, rights seem at risk of being emptied of their content and engulfed in geopolitics and therefore confined to use as a stick with which to beat unfriendly nation-states. There may also be an opportunity to rethink liberal democracy, which is often suggested to enjoy a symbiotic, ‘mutually-reinforcing’ relationship[1] with human rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights[2], passed by the United Nations in 1948 after the second World War, contained broad references to a wide range of human rights, but since then, human rights have been divided into two categories or ‘generations’: civil and political rights (first generation rights) and economic and social rights (second generation rights)[3]. The distinction has not been merely ornamental: economic and social rights are widely recognised as lesser human rights[4], and they have mostly not been implemented in domestic jurisdictions as legal rights, especially in comparison with civil and political rights[5].

Liberal democracy has (arguably) crystalised into a norm of international law, a theory advanced by Thomas Franck in 1992[6]. Liberal democracy has spread across the world, especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in a time period referred to by Francis Fukuyama as the ‘End of History’[7], a time in which all arguments over political and economic systems were thought to have been resolved in favour of liberal democracy and capitalism. Liberal democracy supposedly will lead to human rights to be respected and fulfilled due to democracy’s enhancement of society[8], with democracy itself striking a balance between economic & social and civil & political rights[9]. This is a highly dubious idea, especially where economic and social rights are concerned[10], largely due to the abstraction of liberal democracy from its historically contingent relationship with capitalism, which has also spread across the world. The development of capitalism, especially the establishment of private property, has created a distinction between the public sphere of the State and the private sphere of civil society[11]. As democracy tends to remain confined to the public sphere, this means that the private sphere, where economic exchange takes place, remains mostly untouched by democratic pressure.

Human rights enjoy a complicated relationship with the State. On the one hand, the tension within liberalism between individual liberty[12] and society[13] a tension that manifests in liberal democratic theory as one between the collective common good and individual liberty[14], leads to an overly negative view of the State that matches the negativity of civil and political rights but not the action required to fulfil economic and social rights. On the other hand, insufficient theorisation about the State’s historical development and ‘relative’ autonomy can lead to the mistaken belief that it is an independent ‘subject’ that is capable of acting like a referee between sections of society or a passive ‘thing’ that can easily be wielded to achieve a certain goal[15]. A more nuanced conception of the State clarifies that whilst it remains a powerful actor, it also faces significant constrains based upon conflict between social classes and the independent, private power of capital. This also has democratic implications: elections are fought over control of the State, and the idea of change being accomplished at the ballot box is premised upon the idea that the State can be wielded for progressive change. This may not be the case.

At the international level, as mentioned, democracy has become widespread across the world, supported by international law, but this has not led to a global environment more conducive to economic and social human rights. This is due to changes to the structures of capitalism, attributed to globalisation but better known as ‘neoliberalism’, that have reduced the scope of economic sovereignty. This included the increased mobility of transnational capital[16], the use of global governance institutions by powerful Western countries (like the US) to force economic policies upon countries in the Global South[17], and a ‘judicialisation’ of the global economy[18] in order to entrench and protect private property internationally. All of these changes were backstopped by the United States’ immense military power[19].

Liberal democracy also serves as the legal order around which dominant conceptions of human rights have been developed. The UDHR[20], the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights[21] and the European Social Charter[22] all instruct States to implement rights into domestic law, which, as mentioned, States have been reluctant to do. However, even if this were not the case, there would be significant challenges to fulfilling economic and social rights in liberal democratic capitalist society. First, the social power of capital, which is dominant if not totalising in such societies[23] tends to push all economic activity towards the production of profit, which has an uncomfortable relationship with universal economic and social rights. Second, the individual liberty at the heart of liberal democracy, which has an economic counterpart in private property, has shaped the development of law in liberal societies: it tends to treat individuals as abstract, formally equal subjects[24]. This leaves the law unable to reckon with underlying economic inequalities that give rise to the need for economic and social rights.

Therefore, a challenge must be issued to idea that there is necessarily a supportive, symbiotic relationship between democracy and human rights. Human rights, especially economic and social rights, must be re-examined, clarifying that these rights are wrongly seen as subordinate to civil and political rights. Liberal democracy should also be reassessed: its status as the world’s dominant governmental and social system is problematic due to its limits and drawbacks, all of which are constituent parts of liberal democracy itself. The way that the international legal and economic order has developed into one that is unfriendly to both human rights and democracy, especially over the past four decades, must be highlighted. Finally, the inadequacy of current legal approaches must be interrogated for the purposes of advancing alternatives.

[1] Scott Leckie and Anne Gallagher (eds), Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights : A Legal Resource Guide (University of Pennsylvania Press 2006), 410

[2] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III)) (UDHR)

[3] Karel Vasak, ‘A 30-year struggle: The sustained efforts to give force of law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (1977) 11 UNESCO Courier 29, 29

[4] Henry J Steiner, Philip Alston, and Ryan Goodman, International Human Rights in Context (3rd edition, Oxford University Press 2008), 263-264

[5] Wade M. Cole, 'Strong Walk and Cheap Talk: The Effect of the International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights on Policies and Practices' (2013) 92(1) Social Forces 165, 182

[6] Thomas M Franck, 'The Emerging Right to Democratic Government' (1992) 86(1) American Journal of International Law 46

[7] Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Hamish Hamilton 1992)

[8] Amartya Sen, 'Democracy as a Universal Value' (1999) 10(3) Journal of Democracy 3, 10-11

[9] Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Cambridge University Press 2013), 233

[10] Tony Evans, 'If democracy, then human rights?' (2001) 22(4) Third World Quarterly 623, 639-640

[11] Simon Clarke, Keynesianism, Monetarism, and the Crisis of the State (Edward Elgar Publishing 1988), 125

[12] John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (originally published 1859, Penguin Books 1976), 68

[13] John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (originally published 1859, Penguin Books 1976), 62-63

[14] Tony Evans, 'If democracy, then human rights?' (2001) 22(4) Third World Quarterly 623, 625

[15] Nicos Poulantzas, ‘The Capitalist State: A Reply to Miliband and Laclau’ (1976) 95 New Left Review 63, 74

[16] David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford University Press 2007), 92

[17] Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine (Penguin 2007), 163-164

[18] Andrew TF Lang, ‘World Trade Law After Neo-Liberalism’ (2014) 23(3) Social & Legal Studies 408, 417

[19] David Harvey, ‘The 'New' Imperialism: Accumulation by Dispossession’ (2004) 40 Socialist Register 63, 72

[20] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III), article 8

[21] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 999 UNTS 171, Article 2(1)

[22] Council of Europe, European Social Charter, 18 October 1961, ETS 35, article I 1(a)

[23] Karl Marx, Capital (first published 1867, International Publishers 1974), 515

[24] Evgeny Bronislavovich Pashukanis, The General Theory of Law & Marxism (first published 1924, Transaction Publishers 2003), 113

What do HR practitioners do to enhance adoption of digital transformation in their organisation?

David Soehren — 2024-03-04

Context

Digital transformation is reshaping the business landscape and organizations are increasingly relying on technology to drive innovation and improve performance. Human Resource Management (HRM) has a crucial role in facilitating this transformation (Van Den Berg et al., 2020). HR practices are essential in fostering innovative behaviour and facilitating the digital transformation process (Nicolás-Agustín et al., 2022). By adopting these practices, organizations can create a culture that encourages employees to embrace digital transformation and actively participate in the change process (Çelebi and Demir, 2022).

As digital transformation imposes new requirements and demands on organisations, HR needs to evolve its services to meet these challenges. This involves recruiting and developing digital talent with the necessary skills and capabilities to drive digital transformation initiatives (Gilch and Sieweke, 2021). HR contributes to digital transformation by ensuring that employees adopt a digital business culture, embrace change, and effectively utilize digital tools (Çelebi and Demir, 2022). In addition, HR needs to support organizational innovation to adapt to digital transformation. This involves creating an environment that encourages creativity and innovation, as well as providing training and development opportunities to enhance employees' digital skills (Parsehyan, 2020). HR also plays a role in digital transformation by reengineering HR processes to support redesigning business efficiency and processes. This includes re-evaluating job roles, skills requirements, and performance management systems to align with the digital transformation goals of the organization (Hu and Zhu, 2021).

Aim: This research investigation is conducted to support HR practitioner in developing their impact in the implementation of digital transformation in the workplace.

Research Question: What do HR practitioners do to enhance the adoption of digital transformation in their organisation?

Research Objectives

Analyse Human Resource Management’s role in digital transformation.
Examine how the Human Resources Management function will evolve to support digital transformation.
Explore HRP’s strategies and approaches to the adoption of DT in their organisation
Develop a practice framework that supports HR practitioner in developing their impact in the implementation of digital transformation in the workplace.

Literature Review

The Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD) defines digital transformation as the organisation and its people’s ability to adopt to rapid change caused by technology and to continue to do so as technology evolves (CIPD and Personio, 2021). The term Digital Maturity refers to the alignment of an organisation's people, culture, structure, and tasks to become fully fluid in its ability to take advantage of technological opportunities. Kane stresses the importance of the relationship between digital transformation and digital maturity as digital disruption will not end anytime soon as many more waves are coming (Kane et al., 2019).

Digital transformation can only be considered a success when employees are fully engaged and committed to the organisation’s transformation and strategic direction, not when new digital technologies have been implemented (Florek-Paszkowska et al., 2021), still, digital transformation initiatives have a high tendency to fail (Pacolli, 2022). In order to increase the likelihood of success, transformation must focus on the people involved, this focus has been a blind spot for digital transformation efforts. Attention to organisational culture, the technologies, employees’ resistance to adaptation, and the overall integration processes is not a straightforward change management initiative. (Pacolli, 2022). It is more important than ever that HRM is involved in the implementation of digital transformation and organisational transformation as it is becoming more important that employees are aligned with the change and the strategic needs of the organisation in this new digital era (Fenech et al., 2019).

According to the CIPD’s report ‘Digital transformation in organisations and people functions’, regarding the future of work, HR’s ability to support and implement digital transformation is critical for organisational success. For the HR professional, digital transformation is more about helping employees adopt and accept the coming changes in the world of work then it is about the technology itself. It is about helping to shape strategy and culture whilst helping reduce anxiety and resistance to change (CIPD and Personio, 2021).

Digital transformation will require both a change in human behaviours and how organisations restructure themselves as they adopt to change. Regarding this change, Jabil (an American global manufacturing company) found that 74% of organisations felt that the biggest challenge will be culturally related and 26% were concerned about the technological change (Genzorova et al., 2019). Digital transformation will directly impact three areas of organisational life, the transformation of customer service, operational processes and overall business models. HR practitioners have a unique opportunity to help managers and employees adapt to new digital technologies and changes, whilst transforming their role and impact in both the day-to-day adaptation and engagement in strategic priorities of their organisation (Mitrofanova et al., 2019).

Change management approaches that focus on positive support for employees and intentional management of the transformation process are crucial for successful implementation (Dudezert et al., 2023). This highlights the importance of considering the impact of digital workplace transformations on employees' task, social, and well-being perceptions. In a digitally transformed organization, HR practitioners need to possess key competencies to effectively navigate the changes brought about by digital transformation (Van Den Berg et al., 2020). HR managers need to develop digital flexibility to adapt to the rapid development of technologies and the new digital reality in HRM (Kapitanov et al., 2021). Aligned HR competencies are essential in the context of digital transformation As organizations undergo digital transformation, HR practitioners need to develop competencies that align with the changing needs of the organization. This includes skills in areas such as data analytics, digital HR tools, and change management (Van Den Berg et al., 2020).

Philosophical Approach

The research project is being undertaken to explore what Human Resource Practitioners do to enhance adoption of digital technologies for digital transformation. It is therefore concerned with how practitioners understand and interpret their experiences. What the practitioner believes works and why that is so, is critical to understanding their behaviours in their contribution in the implementation of digital transformation. As the research is exploring individual meaning and contribution (Alharahsheh and Pius 2020) the research is adopting an Interpretive philosophy.

Methods

A qualitative approach incorporating semi-structured interviews will explore the research question through the eyes of practitioners who have successfully implemented digital ‘transformation’. It is hoped that their experiences will help other HR practitioners by contributing good practice whilst building a persuasive argument for the utilisation of the profession expertise in this area.

References

Alharahsheh, H.H. and Pius, A., (2020). A review of key paradigms: Positivism VS interpretivism. Global Academic Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(3), pp.39-43.

Çelebi, H. and Demir, M., (2022) Effect Of Digital Transformation On Human Resources Planning In Hotel Businesses. InterConf, 16(121), pp.26-37.

CIPD and Personio, (2021) CIPD | Digital transformation in organisations and people functions. [online] CIPD. Available at: https://www.cipd.org/uk/views-and-insights/thought-leadership/the-world-of-work/organisations-people/ [Accessed 10 Jul. 2023].

Dudezert, A., Laval, F., Shirish, A. and Mitev, N., (2023) When Companies Make Your Day: Happiness Management and Digital Workplace Transformation. Journal of Global Information Management, 315, pp.1-35.

Fenech, D.R., Baguant, D.P. and Ivanov, D.D., (2019) The Changing Role Of Human Resource Management In An Era Of Digital Transformation. 232.

Florek-Paszkowska, A., Ujwary-Gil, A. and Godlewska-Dzioboń, B., (2021) Business innovation and critical success factors in the era of digital transformation and turbulent times. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 174, pp.7-28.

Genzorova, T., Corejova, T. and Stalmasekova, N., (2019) How digital transformation can influence business model, Case study for transport industry. Transportation Research Procedia, 40, pp.1053-1058.

Gilch, P.M. and Sieweke, J., (2021) Recruiting digital talent: The strategic role of recruitment in organisations’ digital transformation. German Journal of Human Resource Management: Zeitschrift für Personalforschung, 351, pp.53-82.

Hu, H. H., & Zhu, Y. (2021). Talent Value Creation during Digital Transformation: A Inductive Model of HR Reengineering. Journal of Business Administration Research, 4(4).

Kane, G.C., Phillips, A.N., Copulsky, J.R. and Andrus, G.R., (2019) The Technology Fallacy: How People Are the Real Key to Digital Transformation. The MIT Press.

Kapitanov, V.A., Osipova, O.S. and Chikileva, L.S., (2021) Promising Areas for Developing HR Managers’ Competencies in the Digital Age. SHS Web of Conferences, 91, p.01016.

Mitrofanova, E.A., Konovalova, V.G. and Mitrofanova, A.E., (2019) Opportunities, Problems And Limitations Of Digital Transformation Of Hr Management. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences, [online] Global Challenges and Prospects of the Modern Economic Development. Available at: https://www.europeanproceedings.com/article/10.15405/epsbs.2019.03.174 [Accessed 15 Jul. 2023].

Nicolás-Agustín, Á., Jiménez-Jiménez, D. and Maeso-Fernandez, F., (2022) The role of human resource practices in the implementation of digital transformation. International Journal of Manpower, 432, pp.395-410.

Pacolli, M., (2022) Importance of Change Management in Digital Transformation Sustainability. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 5539, pp.276-280.

Parsehyan, B.G., (2020) Digital Transformation in Human Resources Management: HR 4.0. Turkish Studies-Information Technologies and Applied Sciences, Volume 15 Issue 2Volume 15 Issue 2, pp.211-224.

van den Berg, M. J., Stander, M. W., & van der Vaart, L. (2020). An exploration of key human resource practitioner competencies in a digitally transformed organisation. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 18, 13.

Simplifying reflective practice for MBA and DBA students

Fiona McNamara — 2024-03-04

The aim of this discussion paper is to suggest some alterative models and ideas which may resonate more with MBA and DBA students. This is based on my 25 years’ experience teaching reflection and my recent engagement in reflective practice as a core part of my DBA. My aim is to offer clarity on the following three areas:

What should MBA and DBA students reflect on?
A model to facilitate personal development.
An alternative to reflective journalling.

Introduction.

Whilst there is no shortage of literature on reflection, many aspects of this topic remain opaque. Much of the modern dialogue and research around reflective practice comes from the domains of nursing, social work and teaching, all heavily influenced by the work of Schon (1983), with a comparative paucity of evidence from the management field (Griggs et al, 2018). Whilst there are writers on the topic from the management arena eg Reynolds and Vince (2004) their take is influenced by critical theory and focuses on reflection from an organisational perspective. Whilst important, this does not help executive MBA students looking to reflect on their leadership development, nor DBA students looking to get insights into mental blocks and personal frustrations with their research progress.

What should MBA and DBA students reflect on?

From widespread reading I have found that much of literature on reflection does not always have much clarity on what one should reflect on. Browsing three books, by key writers on reflection, that I have to hand (Bolton and Delderfield, 2018; Fook and Gardner, 2007; Moon, 1999) and I cannot easily find the answer to this question. This is not an isolated experience. This is a vitally important question for anyone starting the process of reflection and to offer clarity on this I would like to propose three domains for reflection (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The three domains for reflection for MBA and DBA students.

The interrelated nature of the domains is illustrated by the Venn diagram circles.

Self: the personal self. This involves thinking about hopes, dreams, wants, needs, strengths, weaknesses, personality, motivations, resilience and the importance of work life balance.

Identity –the work (or study) self. This might include considering one’s identity as a leader or as a student in which efficacy, strengths and the skills needed to progress and develop, feelings of imposterism can all be explored.

Ethics and power –the nature of the organisation in which we work and what we do. How do the existing power structures enable us to thrive or survive? What are the power and ethical issues in our work or our research and the impact of our own biases?

A model to facilitate personal development.

The second issue is concerned with the lack of clarity in the literature around how ideas of self-awareness and self-assessment fit within the reflective practice construct. Desjarlais and Smith (2011) consider it to be separate but related, although much of the literature remains unclear on the distinction. Most of the most well-known models such as Johns (1995) and Gibbs (1988) were devised to focus on critical incident reflection in the development of professional practices. Whilst this is valuable in the medical professions, teaching and social work, as it facilitates reflection on performing medical procedures, exploring a patient or client interaction or even teaching a class, but does not align so well with the self-development element of executive leadership where the starting point does not necessarily come from exploring an incident or interaction.

Figure 2: The Bowden DEEP model.

As experienced professionals MBAs and DBAs are already more primed to consider their own strengths or shortcomings and they access feedback from others in the workplace and while on their courses eg DBAs from their supervisors and MBAs from 360s (or other psychometric tests). This is not to say that reflecting on critical incidents cannot be part of this development, but to my mind it is only one part of the richness of reflective possibilities.

In 2021 I created the Bowden DEEP model (Figure 2) based on the ideas of double loop learning (Argyris, 1977) with the purpose of offering a clear structure for reflecting on self-development from various sources of feedback eg from own musings, mentors or supervisors, 360s, appraisals, performance reviews and other psychometric tools.

An alternative to journaling

Keeping a reflective journal is the default suggested method for engaging in reflective practice (Bolton and Delderfield, 2018; Brookfield, 1998; Griggs et al 2018; Moon, 2001). From my own experiences on the DBA, it can be useful, but is time consuming and generates so much unwieldy detail that it is difficult to unpack and make sense of. Various research has identified time as the main barrier to engaging in reflection (Finlay, 2008; Gibbs et al, 2018).

As an alternative, photo-voice (Wang and Burris, 1997), used as a qualitative research methodology to explore underpinning narratives, works just as well as a reflective tool. Using photographs and images as a way of gaining deeper self-insights and unlocking previously unexplored self-schemas. There are several protocols used to unpack the learning from photovoice narratives eg Horwitz (2012) PHOTO protocols.

Figure 3: The WHAT protocols for using creative reflective techniques

I have adapted this to something that better facilitates sensemaking in the reflective practice domain and used the acronym WHAT (Figure 3). The word ‘what’ has an interrogative meaning and asks us to question the meaning, identity or proposition, value of something, which is at the heart of self-reflection.

To use the WHAT technique requires the selection of a photograph or image (this can be applied to music, sounds, poetry, memes, artefacts, dérive walks) and the participant works their way through the WHAT protocol questions. This can be a free association with whatever comes to mind, or reflections can be on a particular theme eg confidence.

Conclusion

Finlay summarised the difficulties of reflection ‘The problem with reflective practice is that it is hard to do and equally hard to teach. It is even harder to do and teach effectively’. (2008 p 15). This is even more complex in the management and business domain and especially at the executive level of MBA and DBA students. I would like to hope that my ideas and suggestions could add some clarity to the existent body of writing on the topic.

References:

Argyris, C. (1977) Double Loop learning in Organisations. Harvard Business Review Sept 1977.

Bolton, G., and Delderfield, R. (2018) Reflective Practice: writing and Professional Development. 5^th Edition, Sage.

Desjarlais, M., and Smith, P. (2011) A Comparative Analysis of Reflection and Self-Assessment. International Journal of Process Education (June 2011, Vol 3 Issue 1).

Finlay, L. (2008) Reflecting on Reflective Practice. A discussion paper for Practice Based Professional Learning Centre, paper 52, The Open University.

Fook, J., and Gardner, F. (2007) Practicing Critical Reflection: A Resource Handbook. Open University Press, McGraw Hill Education.

Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic: Oxford

Griggs, V., Lawless, A., Rae, J., and Holden, R. (2018) From reflective learning to reflective practice: assessing transfer. Studies in Higher Education, 43 (7), pp.1172-1183.

Horwitz, J. (2012) Photovoice as a critical reflection methodology. Agency through teacher education: Reflection, community, and learning, pp.15-24.

Johns, C. (1995) Framing learning through reflection within Carper’s fundamental ways of knowing in nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 22, 2, 226-234

Moon, J. (1999) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: theory and practice. Routledge Falmer.

Reynolds, M., and Vince, R. (2004). Organizing reflection: An introduction. Organizing reflection, pp.1-14.

Schon, D., A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.

Wang, C., and Burris, M., A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health education & behavior, 24(3), pp.369-387.

Exploring Wellbeing: A Study of Scottish Hospitality Sector

Pabby Johnson — 2024-03-04

Introduction: The concept of wellbeing has in recent times resurfaced strongly even though the notion has been in existence for many years. Echoed in psychological, medical, economic, and social sciences is now also prevalent in other disciplines. The complexity and different perspectives make it an interesting area to explore. With the current push of the wellbeing agenda in businesses, larger organisations seem to be making greater efforts relative to micro, small and medium sized firms (MSME).

Consequentially, most research centre on the wellbeing of employees in larger organisations or looking at the quantitative nature of environmental factors effect on wellbeing. Other research attempting to investigate and bridge the gap between the relationship of wellbeing to performance, growth, and productivity, have mainly been in relation to the employee or the worker.

The limited emphasis on MSMEs is troubling for two reasons. First, the general resource constrained nature, state, and operational dynamics of MSME organically leans itself to wellbeing considerations, research, and interventions. Second, significant contributions of MSMEs to development and growth is being impacted by external factors and turbulence, with the hospitality (Accommodation and Food Services) sector being one of the most affected.

The hospitality sector is a welcome point for the wider society including locals and visitors. With this consideration, if there is a significant impact on the wellbeing of employees and owners in this sector, the wellbeing of the wider society is also impacted.

Within United Kingdom (UK) devolved administrations (Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland), Scotland has the highest number of registered businesses in this sector. Considering the sector’s dynamic, resilient, and fast adapting nature, and changes in the past to present, the research seeks to take a holistic approach on wellbeing from an employee and owner perspective within this sector.

Scope: This study seeks to explore and investigate wellbeing through the lens of both employees and business owners within the Scottish hospitality (accommodation and food service) sector. The following research questions arise:

How is the concept of wellbeing defined and perceived by business owners and employees within the urban hospitality tourism sector in Scotland?
How does micro, macro environmental factors and turbulence affect the wellbeing of business owners and employees?
Are there any wellbeing practices and programmes available tailored to the needs of the owner and employees?
What is/are the relationship/s between wellbeing and productivity and what framework could be coined to establish the relationship within the industry of which could be applied in the rest of UK?

Approach: This research is purely mono method research where qualitative data will be collected from micro and small business owners and employees through semi structured in-depth interview. A cross sectional design will be used as time horizon choice as the research will explore and interpret the research questions over a short period in time and not over a long period of time. Interviews will be supplemented with Secondary data on external factors and background of business. Data sampling will be purposive as the research looks in micro and small business with employees’ size between (1-9) and (10-49) respectively within the accommodation and food service in urban Scotland. Snowballing technique will be employed where recruited participants will be asked to assist in identifying potential alike micro and small businesses. Participants will be sourced directly and through hospitality network groups.

Results: At this early stage of the research, the research avoids any pre informed decision on the research as this is an exploration to reveal the reality of effect and impact of the concept.

As far the researcher in concerned, this is the first research of kind to explore and investigate the concept within the hospitability sector in Scotland and bridging the dichotomy with employee and owner perspective.

Relevant literature confirms the nonexistence of a standard definition of wellbeing hence the research adds to the knowledge gap. The devolved administrations in UK are set up differently with distinct devolved history within the MSME space and would be interesting to explore and investigate how the concept interplays within Scotland.

Implication: As there is no universal definition of wellbeing especially in the MSME space, this research will define wellbeing within the hospitality space, adding to the knowledge gap.

The research will help micro and small business have a deeper understanding on the importance of wellbeing to productivity and how the impact of micro, macro environmental factors and turbulence have on their wellbeing.

Policy makers can prioritise wellbeing for SMEs, where reporting scheme similar to diversity and pay gap reporting is mandatory for businesses.

This research could open opportunity for financial support to SMEs to prioritise the agenda for wellbeing. Wellbeing practises and programmes would be promoted and improved within the SME space.

Limitations: The study is only looking at Scotland and within the hospitality sector but unsure if the finding can be generalisable to other sectors as well as the devolved and other nations.

Is Western leadership development fit for purpose? -- A Case Study of an International Hotel based in China.

Wen Li — 2024-03-04

Background-

The rapidly developing hotel industry in China made a total profit of 3,791 billion RMB and accounted for 0.7 percent of the GDP and 0.6 percent of the total workforce. Amidst this rapid development, China’s labor-intensive hotel industry faces several challenges, leadership development being seen to enhance the situation.

Several studies which related to leadership development in international hotels conducted under western context and theories. The most leadership development studies have been developed in Western economics, which ignores the cultural, political, and labor market differences of leadership development (Chow, 2021; Dai et al, 2013).

Through the upstanding of leadership development theories, I assumed that the Western concept of leadership development may not be suitable for China, with it being important to contextualize any leadership study.

Theory

Recent attention to the organizational context of leadership development has tended to emphasize competitive advantage and the value of such investments (Deloitte, 2014), with specific reference being made to the performance of executive leaders (Li et al, 2013). Day (2000) argued that leader development aims at building human capital, while leadership development aims at building social capital. Leader development is one of the parts of leadership development and supported leadership development from each individuals. For this research, leadership development is the priority to explore based on the views of individual leaders.

Current literature has shown two main agendas in the Chinese context. One is to compare and implement western leadership development theories into Chinese context; the other is to concentrate on the establishment of theoretic foundation to develop Chinese leadership and leadership development theory (Selvarajah and Meyer, 2008).

The existing literature presents a variety of leadership development approaches that are/have been applied in organizations to improve performance management and enhance productivity, such as 360-degree feedback, coaching, mentoring, action learning （ Day 2000 and Day et al, 2021）， experiential learning, specific job assignments, corporate case studies, skill-based training, and classroom-type leadership training （Bolden, 2016）. Three main leadership development interventions will be explored in this research context, include experienced-based approach, formal training, and coach.

Purpose- In broad terms, the proposed research seeks to address how leadership development is perceived in a case-study organisation. Thus, the key research question that drives the proposed study is to explore the perception of leadership development and the effectiveness of leadership development.

Research Questions:

How do domestic hotel managers perceive and understand leadership and leadership development?
What are the current leadership development practices within the case study hotel?
What are the implications of this analysis for leadership development practice within this context?

Design/method- The methodology framework for this research is informed by a social constructionist philosophy and a critical case study research design.

Result/Conclusions - In terms of the theoretical contribution for this research, it will develop key concepts of leadership/leadership development and fill the gap of leadership development theories in Chinese context natures shown that western leadership development not complete fit to Chinese context.

The difference of leader development and leadership development is focus on the characters of human capital and social capital. The first phase (document analysis) in this research has been completed. The document content of training program in case study hotel gave more attention to management skills rather the leadership development. For the first document analysis stage, there is no data to show the effectiveness of perceived leadership development and leaders’ perception of leadership development, the data from semi-structured interviews currently analysis by the method of temple analysis.

Exploring Sustainable Strategies of Black women Leaders in the UK

Jane Eme-Power — 2024-03-04

Introduction

The existing body of theoretical and empirical research on Black women and intersectionality is predominantly centered in the United States, with a primary focus on the social dimensions of both physical and mental health outcomes. This research has often been sector-specific, looking into areas such as Education, Police, and Prison Service. Within this context, empirical evidence shows a large correlation between gendered racism and adverse mental health outcomes among Black women. Moradi and Subich's (2003) investigation revealed a significant correlation between experiences of sexism and racism and heightened psychological distress among African American women. Notably, sexism emerged as a distinct factor contributing uniquely to psychological distress. Similarly, studies conducted by Thomas, Witherspoon, and Speight (2008) and Szymanski and Steward (2010) found that, among African American women, increased experiences of sexism correlated with raised levels of psychological distress. It is noteworthy, however, that these studies did not incorporate intersectional measures specifically addressing gendered racism.

As women increasingly take on leadership roles, there is a growing push for more inclusive leadership perspectives. However, the experiences of Black women leaders are often overlooked in broader feminist discussions (Rosser-Mims, 2010). Scholars like Booysen (2014) and Sims (2018) have highlighted this omission, leaving a gap where the leadership experiences of Black women lack visibility. This gap puts Black women leaders in a challenging position, forcing them to decide whether to conform to mainstream assumptions, therefore concealing their uniqueness, or reject these assumptions as inadequate representations of their experiences (Dickens et al., 2019; Nixon, 2017).

This research aims to fill this gap by exploring the intersection of racism and sexism and investigating the sustainable strategies adopted by Black women leaders in the United Kingdom.

Literature Review

Numerous metaphors such as the glass ceiling, glass cliff, maternal wall, glass escalator, and sticky floor illustrate the hurdles women encounter in advancing into leadership roles (Smith et al., 2012). These metaphors capture the diverse challenges women face at different stages of their careers. Eagly and Carli (2007) introduce the metaphor of the labyrinth, portraying a complex map of challenges that women navigate, with varying degrees of success, all leading toward the ultimate goal of achieving a leadership position. The labyrinth proposition is that though advancement is challenging, it is not insurmountable. Wyatt and Sylvester's research in 2015 focused on Black Minority Ethnic (BME) employees, and their findings indicate that, according to Black women interviewed, ethnicity takes precedence over gender as an issue for BME managers.

According to Davidson and Davidson (1997), Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) employees are more likely to face a 'concrete ceiling,' a formidable barrier that is both denser and harder to break through. In a study by McDonald (2011), it is noted that the relationship networks or 'ties' of BME employees at work tend to be concentrated at lower organisational levels compared to their white colleagues. This concentration is explained by the concept of homophily, which is the tendency for people to form network ties with those who are ethnically similar at work (Ibarra et al., 2005). Researchers argue that BME employees face a disadvantage in reaching leadership positions partly because there are fewer ethnically similar individuals in powerful positions with whom they can establish homophilous ties.

Alongside homophilous ties, Moody and Lewis (2019), explored gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress amongst Black women and concluded that a greater frequency of gendered racial microaggressions was significantly associated with greater traumatic stress symptoms. According to Crenshaw (1989), Black women do not experience racism because they are Black and sexism because they are women, but they experience a unique form of oppression at the intersection of their identities as Black women. An intersectionality framework in research allows exploration of the ways that interlocking forms of oppression, discrimination and/or privilege influence intersectionality identifies.

In examining this landscape, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the nuances of gendered racism and racial microaggressions, as they intersect with and impact the experiences of Black women in unique ways.

Theoretical basis

Attribution Theory, based on Heider's (1958) ideas, is central for understanding how people explain events. It involves two main types of attributions: dispositional (related to personal traits) and situational/environmental (related to external factors). For instance, if someone succeeds, a dispositional attribution might credit their skills, while a situational attribution might blame the task's difficulty (Wyatt and Sylvester, 2015). This theory facilitates understanding in how individuals interpret and assign causes to events in their surroundings.

Boundary Theory, Langley et al (2019) explores the ways different groups, occupations, and organisations define and navigate their limits and interactions. It is like mapping the borders between these entities and understanding how they actively shape and manage those boundaries. "Boundary work" implies the deliberate efforts and processes involved in maintaining, negotiating, or challenging these borders, contributing to a better understanding of how various entities coexist and interact.

Research Design

The study adopts a qualitative research approach with specific methodological focuses, notably ethnography and narrative research. Ethnography involves a meticulous examination of the culture within a particular community group, emphasising observation as a primary data collection method Denzin and Lincoln (2011). Narrative research, on the other hand, focuses on the interpretation of stories told by individuals Reisman (2007).

The data collection process aims to describe and interpret the narratives, providing insights into the experiences and perspectives of the participants. The population for this study is identified using a non-probability sampling technique ‘snowball technique,’ a method where initial participants recommend others for inclusion, allowing for a more natural and contextually relevant selection of participants.

Data analysis employs thematic analysis, as outlined by Brown and Clarke (2006). Thematic analysis involves systematically coding and organising the data to identify key themes, providing a structured framework for interpreting the findings. Additionally, discourse analysis is employed to put the collected data into context. This approach involves analysing different levels of communication, including language, structure, and tone. Gillham (2005) suggests the use of open-ended questions and flexibility in allowing participants to elaborate, ensuring a rich and comprehensive exploration of the narratives.

References

CARLI, L.L. AND EAGLY, A.H. (2016), "Women face a labyrinth: an examination of metaphors for women leaders", Gender in Management, Vol. 31 No. 8, pp. 514-527.

COLLINS PH (2000) Black Feminist Thought (2nd edn). New York: Routledge.

CRENSHAW, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039 [accessed 30 sept 2023]

DAVIDSON, M., AND DAVIDSON, M. (1997) The Black and ethnic minority woman manager: cracking the concrete ceiling. London, Sage.

JOHNSON, N. N. (2023). Intersectionality in Leadership: Spotlighting the Experiences of Black Women DEI Leaders in Historically White Academic Institutions. In T. Johnson (Eds.), The Experiences of Black Women Diversity Practitioners in Historically White Institutions (pp. 213-238). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-3564-9.ch01 [Accessed 01 October 2023]

LANGLEY, A ., LINDBERG, K., MØRK, B., DAVIDE, N., RAVIOLA, E., AND LARS, W. (2019). Boundary Work among Groups, Occupations and Organizations: From Cartography to Process. Academy of Management Annals. 13. 10.5465/annals.2017.0089 [Accessed 23 September 2023]

KLENKE, K 2016, Qualitative Research in the Study of Leadership, Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. 01 November 2023].

MCCOMBES, S. (2023). Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/research-design/ [Accessed 10 November2023]

LANIER, D. A., TOSON, S. J., & WALLEY-JEAN, J. C. (2022). Black Women Leaders: Going High in a World of Lows. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 24(3), 193-207.

MOODY, A. T., & LEWIS, J. A. (2019). Gendered Racial Microaggressions and Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Black Women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 201-214.

MORADI, B., & SUBICH, L. M. (2003). A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. The Counselling Psychologist, 31, 451-469.

SZYMANSKI, D. M., & STEWART, D. N. (2010). Racism and sexism as correlates of African American women’s psychological distress. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11199-010-9788-0.pdf [accessed 12 October 2023]

THOMAS, A.J., WITHERSPOON, K.M. and SPEIGHT, S.L., 2008. Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology,14(4),pp.307-314.

WYATT, M. & SILVESTER, J. (2015). Reflections on the labyrinth: Investigating Black and Minority Ethnic leaders’ career experiences. Human Relations, 68(8), pp. 1243-1269.

Social media, misogyny, and gender critical speech: a human rights approach to hate in the UK

Michele Goodbody — 2024-03-04

Aims/Objectives

• A critical evaluation of the impact gender critical speech has on freedom of expression

1. To recommend legislative changes in terms of human rights as the right to expression is being narrowed

2. A proposed definition of hate speech which can be solidified into legislation

3. An evaluation of the impact hate crime has on freedom of expression

4. An evaluation of the impact speech has as a manifestation of a belief

Overview

“Gender-critical beliefs refer to the view that someone’s sex – whether they are male or female – is biological and immutable and cannot be conflated with someone’s gender identity, whether they identify as a man or a woman.”[1] A growing number of people have been more vocal about this view with varying results. Maya Forstater lost paid work because she shared her views online,[2] Harry Miller[3] was arrested for tweets he shared in response to government plans to change the Gender Recognition Act,[4] Kate Scottow was arrested for referring to a transwoman as ‘he’ on social media,[5] Professor Jo Phoenix was cancelled from speaking at Essex University because of her ‘gender critical’ views,[6] and JK Rowling received death threats for sharing her ‘gender-critical’ views online.[7] In all cases, the theme which connects them is their shared gender-critical views being determined as hateful yet each one saw either a person discriminated, criminalised, censored or on the receiving end of hate themselves. Gender critical speech is becoming ever more a divisive, political, and toxic form of speech. Nancy Kelley, the chief executive of Stonewall has likened gender-critical beliefs to anti-semitism because of the extreme nature of the views and the insistence that the viewpoint is targeting a protected characteristic such as sexuality, gender identity, and race.[8]

Yet, people have the right to freedom of expression, a right which is considered the cornerstone of democracy. A right, which allows all viewpoints to be shared and considered without fear of legal sanction or censorship. A right which is at the essence of what it means to be human in the way we communicate. The right which permits words which shock and offend…. Such are the demands of pluralism and tolerance… without which there is no democratic society.[9] It accepts the “the irritating, the contentious, the eccentric, the heretical, the unwelcome and the provocative”[10] however, increasingly, opinions and views are being labelled as hate speech without their being a universal definition of ‘hate speech’ which raises concerns.

A further concern rests in the abuse which stems from people’s expression, Laud notes “more and more people have moved online, individuals inclined toward racism, misogyny, or homophobia have found niches that can reinforce their views and goad them to violence.”^[11] Amnesty International attest that women are more susceptible to receiving hate online which flows through to offline abuse.^[12] Yet women are not afforded the same level of protection comparative to transgender people.^[13] This creates further division and produces more hate. Limited monitoring of social media means unpopular or distasteful views can spread instantly, furthermore, content removal on social media means people face the risk of arrest for expressing unpopular opinions, or they are self-censoring, suggesting the basic right to freedom of “expression is being reduced. This research will evaluate the relationship between hate speech and the basic right to freedom of expression and whether it represents hate in the realm of gender.

Lit Review

There is no universal definition of hate speech, simply broad guidance at national, European, and international levels. It includes protecting a person/group from the incitement of violence or hate based on an immutable characteristic.^[14] However, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes gender as a ‘characteristic’ worthy of protection whereas Europe do not. Gender is argued as both an immutable characteristic and one that is not. In England, the legal framework includes a collective of statutes used to criminalise speech, these include Public Order Act^[15], Communications Act^[16], and Malicious Communications Act^[17]. All of which align with the notion that there is an action associated with the speech. Yet, alongside these statutes is the Human Rights Act^[18] which affords a person the right to freedom of expression. The collection of various treaties and national laws covering human rights, equality and crime are adding to the confusion of whether an opinion is hateful because dependent on how a view is expressed and perceived will alter the avenue of legal recourse. The ‘opinion’ however, may be the same. Terms such as ‘stirring up’, ‘menacing’ and ‘grossly offensive’ are applied objectively to expression but the way we communicate is subjective and how we understand information is based upon perception, therefore, when cases are decided it is based upon looking at the context. For example, Connolly^[19] drew upon the actions of posting photographs of aborted fœtus’s to three pharmacists. The action of posting the photos was enough to satisfy the threshold of causing anxiety and distress even though that was not the intention. Whereas a conviction was quashed in Karsten^[20] as no threat or menace was deemed to exist in withheld phone calls which the respondent felt threatened by. Where gender has become a problem in the arena of ‘speech’ links to hate crime and equality principles. Hate crime, for example, has five protected characteristics, race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and transgender. Women, however, are not afforded protection as a characteristic, yet, looking at the broad and ambiguous concepts of hate speech, it could be argued that women sit within the heading of ‘immutable characteristic’. Very few statutes assist with defining ‘gender’ or ‘sex’ which adds the confusion as to what is acceptable in terms of speech under the subheading ‘gender’.

Theory

Freedom of expression is a long-established principle which has been present in societies around the world for over the importance of expression however, founding theory surrounding expression dates back to Ancient Greece where Socrates devised a way of questioning called Elenchus[21] which focused on people challenging each other’s arguments or statements as a way of determining ‘truth’. It influenced legal systems as it is the foundation for cross-examination of witnesses, the importance of this technique being that by accepting all viewpoints you allow for greater understanding within the sphere of knowledge. Another movement which saw a transition to the importance of expression was censorship. John Milton discussed this in his work Areopagitica where he addressed parliament over the proposed reinstatement of licensing of books and pamphlets where he recognised that while censorship may come from the pretense of good it opens the door to he misuse of government and oppression of people.[22] This fear has continued through to modern day where the EU has been discussing the ‘chilling effect’ censorship has people in so far as the negative effect legal sanctions can have in suppressing what people say, it goes against the grain of the natural/legal person. Finally, another key figure to discuss is that of John Stuart Mill who wrote ‘on liberty’[23], Mill’s focus was of tolerance towards each other in order to develop societies and was of the mindset that by allowing all ideas into the arena, collectively, people work together towards a shared agreement. The only time Mill supports the suppression of expression is when the truth is thought to be harmful towards another and this is where the legitimate restrictions can counter the right fully. However, where there is ambiguity is in the definition of the principle itself as there is no indicator on what specifically harm is, meaning when states interfere with this right and in some instances, excessively.

Reference List

Article | ‘Online abuse of women widespread in the UK’ (20^th September 2023) <Online abuse of women widespread in UK | Amnesty International UK> accessed 20^th September 2023

B Morrow | ‘J.K. Rowling’s transphobia controversy: A complete timeline’ (13^th Feb 2023) <J.K. Rowling's transphobia controversy: A complete timeline | The Week UK> accessed 1^st November 2023

COE | ‘Framework Decision on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law’ (15^th June 2014) <EUR-Lex - l33178 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu)> accessed 25^th June 2023

Editorial | ‘The Observer view on the right to free expression’ (The Guardian) (27^th June 2021) < The Observer view on the right to free expression | Observer editorial | The Guardian> accessed 9^th November 2023

J Parker, and E Lawrie | ‘Stonewall boss defends new strategy amid criticism’ (BBC) (29^th May 2021) <Stonewall boss defends new strategy amid criticism - BBC News> accessed 9^th November 2023

JS Mills, ‘On Liberty – Dover Thrift Edition’ (1^st edn, Dover Publications 2002)

M Evans, International Law (5^th Edn, OUP 2018)

News | ‘University of Essex apologises to professor over trans-rights cancellation’ (BBC) (19^th May 2021) <University of Essex apologises to professor over trans-rights cancellation - BBC News> accessed 10^th November 2023

V.A.Blasi, ‘A Reader’s Guide to John Milton’s Areopagitica, the Foundational Essay of the First Amendment Tradition’ (2018) SUP. CT. REV. 273

Z Laub | ‘Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparisons’ (7^th June 2019) <Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparisons | Council on Foreign Relations (cfr.org)> accessed 25^th February 2023

[1] Editorial | ‘The Observer view on the right to free expression’ (The Guardian) (27^th June 2021) < The Observer view on the right to free expression | Observer editorial | The Guardian> accessed 9^th November 2023.

[2] Maya Firstater v CGD Europe, Center for Global Development [2021] UKEAT/0105/20/JOJ.

[3] R (Harry Miller) v The College of Policing [2021] EWCA Civ 1926.

[4] Gender Recognition Act 2004; The reform included removing the requirement for a medical practitioner to confirm a trans person has gender dysphoria and thus making the process easier for a trans person to gain legal status as the gender they identified.

[5] Katherine Elizabth Scottow v Crown Prosecution Service [2020] EWHC 3421 (Admin).

[6] News | ‘University of Essex apologises to professor over trans-rights cancellation’ (BBC) (19^th May 2021) <University of Essex apologises to professor over trans-rights cancellation - BBC News> accessed 10^th November 2023.

[7] B Morrow | ‘J.K. Rowling;s transphobia controversy: A complete timeline’ (13^th Feb 2023) <J.K. Rowling's transphobia controversy: A complete timeline | The Week UK> accessed 1^st November 2023.

[8] J Parker, and E Lawrie | ‘Stonewall boss defends new strategy amid criticism’ (BBC) (29^th May 2021) <Stonewall boss defends new strategy amid criticism - BBC News> accessed 9^th November 2023.

[9] Handyside v UK,

[10] Redmond-Bate v Director of Public Prosecutions (1999) 7 BHRC 375. Sedley LJ [20].

[11] Z Laub | ‘Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparisons’ (7^th June 2019) <Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparisons | Council on Foreign Relations (cfr.org)> accessed 25^th February 2023.

[12] Article | ‘Online abuse of women widespread in the UK’ (20^th September 2023) <Online abuse of women widespread in UK | Amnesty International UK> accessed 20^th September 2023.

[13] By way of protected characteristics or in the realm of hate crime.

[14] COE | ‘Framework Decision on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law’ (15^th June 2014) <EUR-Lex - l33178 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu)> accessed 25^th June 2023.

[15] Public Order Act 1986.

[16] Communications Act 2003; S.127.

[17] Malicious Communications Act 1988.

[18] Human Rights Act 1998.

[19] Connolly v Director of Public Prosecutions [2007] EWHC 237 (Admin)

[20] Karsten v Wood Green Crown Court [2014] EWHC 2900

[21] M Evans, International Law (5^th Edn, OUP 2018) 54.

[22] V.A.Blasi, ‘A Reader’s Guide to John Milton’s Areopagitica, the Foundational Essay of the First Amendment Tradition’ (2018) SUP. CT. REV. 273

[23] JS Mills, ‘On Liberty – Dover Thrift Edition’ (1^st edn, Dover Publications 2002)

A critical appraisal of the experiences, benefits, barriers and misconceptions which surround the recruitment and employment of prison leavers amongst UK Employers in the midst of a labour shortage

Bob Cumiskey — 2024-03-04

Introduction / Literature Review

The United Kingdom (UK) is in the midst of a recruitment crisis, with a large number of employees struggling to fill vacancies and fulfil production and service quotas in order to meet customer requirements. These recruitment challenges, if not overcome, can negatively impact an organisation’s brand and profitability and in the worst case, render them no longer able to operate. (CIPD, 2023).

According to the British Chamber of Commerce’s (2022) quarterly recruitment outlook, 82% of organisations reported recruitment difficulties in quarter 4, compared to 76% in quarter 3, which suggests the recruitment challenges are worsening for organisations.

There is a number of key reasons for the UK labour shortage, one of which being that the labour market has recovered faster and outstripped the available labour supply since the end of the pandemic in 2021, which has led to organisations throughout the UK competing for talent in a tight labour market (House of Commons Library, 2023).

In addition to the reason highlighted, there is a number of other causes that are having an impact and aiding the recruitment crisis.According to the ONS (2022), in quarter 3 of 2022, the number of economically inactive people with a long-term illness surpassed 2.5 million for the first time. One potential issue that could be supporting the rise in this number is the waiting lists within the National Health Service (NHS), meaning people have to wait longer to see a doctor or have surgery. Impacting, the overall length of time they are unavailable to work. Ironically, the waiting lists are partially caused by the recruitment crisis within the NHS, due to the service struggling to recruit enough doctors and nursing staff to meet the needs of their patients (Royal College of Nursing, 2022).

Early retirement is also cited by the Institute of Fiscal Studies (IFS, 2022) as a contributor to the recruitment crisis.Their research suggests, that there was an increase in retirement due to a large number of older workers suffering from ill-health, increasing their wealth due to the absence of spending opportunities during the pandemic, and the move to remote working which they suggest, did not suit older workers due to a lack of socialisation.

Brexit has also been highlighted as a main contributor to the labour shortages problem. The House of Commons Library (2023) suggest that new immigration rules post-Brexit may have exacerbated the situation.Brexit brought an end to the free movement laws that allowed labour to move freely between EU states. When the UK left the EU in 2019, this no longer applied and now means that an EU citizen wanting to work in the UK, would have to apply for a visa.

As a result of operating within a tight labour market, UK employers are having to adapt and change their approach to recruitment practices in order to remain competitive.One such approach is to recruit Prison Leavers (PLs), who have already left or are about to leave the Criminal Justice System (CJS).There are currently 86,602 individuals being held in 122 prisons spread throughout England and Wales as of the end of July 2023 (Gov.uk,2023).On average, there is 60000 PLs released each year from the CJS, and currently only 19.8% (11880) of these individuals will enter employment by the end of 6 months from their release (Gov.uk, Justice data, 2023).This means that 80.2% (48120) PLs are still without employment at the end of the first 6 months of leaving the CJS.Therefore, it could be suggested that the outlook for PLs gaining employment is rather bleak, However, with the current annual cost of re-offending in the UK being £18.1 Billion (UK Parliament, 2022) and the rate of re-offending amongst adult PLs standing at 25% (15000, based on 60000 leaving the CJS) (ONS,2023), it is evident that more work needs to be done to bring the HMPPS and employers closer together to provide successful outcomes for PLs attempting to gain employment upon or within 6 months of their release.

There is a host of benefits as a result of recruiting PLs and applying due diligence throughout the process and working closely with the HMPPS.According to Working Chance, (2023), 92% of organisations that currently employ PLs, have cited that this recruitment initiative has helped to enhance their reputation, helped them to win contracts, and even awards (Working Chance, 2023).

According to Working Chance (2023) in the last six years, the proportion of employers who would not hire someone with a conviction has reduced significantly, from half to just over a quarter. However, despite this, there is still a number of barriers present, with the most prevalent being; the PLs have a criminal conviction, the PLs will re-offend whilst in the workplace, it will damage the organisations brand / image, it will impact the organisations liability insurance, the nature of the offence that has been committed and that other employees will be fearful of the PLs in the workplace (Working Chance, 2022a).

Despite some organisations believing that a PL may re-offend whilst in the workplace, no such evidence exists, (Working Chance, 2022a), but there is lots of research that suggests that employment is one of the surest ways to prevent PLs from re-offending (Gov.co.uk, 2023).

Research Objectives

Recruiting PLs has a number of benefits for organisations (Working chance, 2023), but there still seems to be a number of misconceptions that exist for employers which is preventing them from tapping into this valuable resource, despite some of them struggling to recruit staff.

Therefore, the aims of the research are,

To explore UK employer’s experiences of recruiting and employing prison leavers. To examine the actual and perceived benefits and barriers amongst UK employers with regards to the recruitment and employment of prison leavers To critically engage with the misconceptions which surround the recruitment and employment of prison leavers, from the perspective of both, employers, and people with lived experience of the criminal justice system.

To create a framework / briefing paper, for employers, that can be utilised to inform the process of the recruitment and employment of Prison Leavers

Research Outcome

This research project will provide employers and the HMPPS with valuable information that will allow them to understand each other’s needs, when supporting PLs into gainful employment.The framework will allow organisations to follow a clear pathway, when recruiting PLs and help them to address any concerns or misconceptions that they may have in this area.

References

British Chamber of Commerce (2023), Quarterly recruitment outlook: Highest level of recruitment difficulties on record, Available at - https://www.britishchambers.org.uk/news/2023/02/quarterly-recruitment-outlook-highest-level-of-recruitment-difficulties-on-record [Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

CIPD, (2023), Understanding the economy and labour market, Factsheet, May 2023, London: UK

Gov.uk, (2023) Prisons Strategy White Paper, Available at - https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prisons-strategy-white-paper - [Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

Gov.uk, Justice Data, (2023) Prison Population Statistics, Available at - https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/prison-population-statistics - [Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

House of Commons Library, (2023), Skills and Labour Shortages, Available at - https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cdp-2023-0001/#:~:text=The%20causes%20of%20labour%20market%20shortages&text=Labour%20supply%20and%20employment%20are,%2Dterm%20illness%20(27%25).[Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

IFS, (2022), Decisions to retire early are driving growing economic inactivity amongst people in their 50s and 60s, Available at - https://ifs.org.uk/news/decisions-retire-early-are-driving-growing-economic-inactivity-among-people-their-50s-and-60s [Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

ONS, (2023), Vacancies and Jobs in the UK - October 2023, Available at - https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/bulletins/jobsandvacanciesintheuk/latest#vacancies-for-march-to-may-2023[Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

Royal College of Nursing (2022), Available at - https://www.rcn.org.uk/news-and-events/news/uk-severe-nursing-workforce-shortages-new-rcn-report-exposes-urgent-need-for-government-action041122#:~:text=Recent%20estimates%20show%20that%20without,in%20England%20by%202030%2F31 [Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

Working Chance (2023), Hiring with Conviction, Available at - https://workingchance.org/about-us/our-policy-focus/hiring-with-conviction/[Online - Accessed 10^th November 2023]

An exploration of employee trust and belonging for those working in a PIE

Helen Klepper — 2024-03-04

Introduction

In the current climate of economic uncertainty where many employers are seeking to recruit in a tight labour market (CIPD 2022) retaining and ensuring the engagement of employees is paramount. The importance of understanding what motivates and engages employees to ensure retention and high-performance working is of particular interest to those working in adult social care where recruitment is extremely challenging. In October 2022 Skills for Care reported that there were 165,000 vacant posts in adult social care. This study will investigate whether working in a psychologically informed environment can have a positive impact, not only on service-users in adult social care (Benson & Brennan, 2018) but also on employees resulting in higher levels of engagement.

Relevance and Impact of Research

This research will centre on three organisations within the Liverpool City Region whose focus is working with vulnerable people in adult social care and supported housing. The three companies are at different stages of implementing trauma informed care (McNally et al., 2022) and working within a psychologically informed environment (Benson & Brennan, 2018). However, if there is a positive impact how employees trust and feel that they belong to the organisations when they work in this way, there is potential for adapting a psychological working environment to other employers whose business involves employees dealing with challenging service-users or customers.

Literature Review

While there has been research undertaken into the impact a psychologically informed environment has on service-users (Phipps et al., 2017; Schneider et al., 2022), there has been little or no research on the impact that working in this way has on employees, particularly those working to support vulnerable people with complex mental health conditions who can present significant challenges.

Benson & Brennan (2018) refer to a psychologically informed environment as a place where the overall approach is holistic and considers the psychological and emotional needs of service users. Many of the people who experience homelessness have suffered complex trauma in their lives which in turn can have a negative impact on that person’s thoughts, feelings, behaviour, and self-image (Thompson et al., 2013). For front line support workers, working in this environment can be challenging, both in terms of the actual work but also through the impact on them as individuals (Schneider et al., 2022).

There is evidence that employees working in this sector have a deep motivation and compassion to seek job satisfaction through helping those who are vulnerable and disadvantaged (Ferris et al., 2016; Kulkarni et al., 2013; Writh et al., 2019). However, this can lead to high levels of emotional exhaustion (Stalker et al., 2007) and the potential for front-line workers to suffer secondary traumatic stress (Figley, 2002; Bride et al., 2004), which in turn could potentially leave employees vulnerable to stress and burn out (Maslach, 2003; Ferris et al 2016).

Having identified the potential vulnerability of employees whose main focus is supporting vulnerable people in these challenging environments Ferris et al. (2016) termed this “the Florence Nightingale effect”. They put forward the proposition that recognising the significant challenges that service-users face could potentially increase job satisfaction and reduce burnout for those employees when they have a shared solidarity with their colleagues and have a strong identification with the organisation in which they work. The suggestion by Ferris et al. (2016) is that identifying with the organisation gives employees an additional resource to deal with the challenges they face together with other colleagues, leading to increased positivity in workplace outcomes. Other areas considered in the literature review for this study will be the concept of reflective practice (Schon, 1994), employee engagement (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008) and trust and belonging (Searle et al., 2011).

Theoretical Basis

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger 1957) provides a theoretical basis for this research. This theory has been applied to support the understanding of workplace issues related to organisational behaviour (Bhave & Glomb, 2016). The proposition that employees who support adults with challenging and complex behaviour may have increased job satisfaction (Ferris et al., 2016) in an environment where there are potential negative effects on both physical and psychological well-being (Robinson, 2014) could be an example of how employees overcome the cognitive discrepancy i.e. the dissonance of the working situation (Hinojosa et al., 2017). A further theory applied to this research is organisational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986) which is based on social exchange theory (Homans, 1961) and ideas of reciprocal behaviour. When an organisation values and treats its employees with respect, they will in turn increase their commitment towards that organisation (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades, Eisenberger & Armeli, 2001).

Research Design

Initially, it was proposed that this research followed a mixed methods design which is consistent with a pragmatic approach (Biesta, 2010). However, as it is intended to explore the feelings and experience of people working in a psychologically informed environment and whether this does impact on trust and belonging, it was felt that a subjective ontological approach (Cassell et al., 2019) alongside an interpretivist epistemological approach (Grix, 2019) was more appropriate to the study. Having identified the philosophical approach, the methodology for conducting research for this study will take a qualitative approach (Scotland, 2012) and will help with understanding the experience and beliefs of those working within a psychologically informed environment (Wisker, 2007)

Research Method

It is proposed that the research will be undertaken using semi-structured interviews (Di-Cicco-Bloom and Crabtree, 2006) and focus groups (Jackson, Drummond & Camara, 2007). A pilot focus group has already been facilitated with thematic analysis utilised to analyse the data collected (Kiger & Varpio, 2020). This pilot focus group will be used as a point of reflection to inform the rest of the study.

References

Bakker, A.B. & Schaufeli, W.B. (2008). Positive organizational behavior: Engaged employees in flourishing organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 29(2), pp.147-154.

Benson, J. & Brennan, M., (2018), Keyworkers’ experiences and perceptions of using psychological approaches with people experiencing homelessness, Housing Care and Support, 51-53, 21(2)

Bhave, D. P., & Glomb, T. M. (2016). The Role of Occupational Emotional Labor Requirements on the Surface Acting-Job Satisfaction Relationship. Journal of Management, 42(3), 722-741.

Biesta, G., (2010), Pragmatism and the Philosophical Foundations of Mixed Methods Research

Cassell, C., Cunliffe, A., & Grandy, G. (2018) The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Business and Management Research Methods: Methods and Challenges, Sage, London

CIPD (2022), Understanding the economy and labour market https://www.cipd.co.uk/knowledge/work/trends/economy-labour-market-factsheet#8362 [accessed: 7^th November 2023]

DiCicco-Bloom, B. & Crabtree, B.F. (2006) ‘The qualitative research interview’, Medical Education, 40(4), pp.314-321.

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison S. & Sowa, D. (1986) Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology 71: 500-507.

Ferris, L.J., Jetten, J., Johnstone, M., Girdham, E., Parsell, C. & Walter, Z.C. (2016) The Florence Nightingale effect: Organizational identification explains the peculiar link between others’ suffering and workplace functioning in the homelessness sector. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, p.16.

Festinger, L. (1962) A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford university press.

Grix, J. (2019) The Foundations of Research, 3^rd edition, Red Globe Press, London

Harmon-Jones, E. & Harmon-Jones, C. (2007) Cognitive dissonance theory after 50 years of development. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 38(1), pp.7-16.

Hinojosa, A. S., Gardner, W. L., Walker, H. J., Cogliser, C., & Gullifor, D. (2017). A Review of Cognitive Dissonance Theory in Management Research: Opportunities for Further Development. Journal of Management, 43(1), 170-199

Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms . New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Jackson, R., Drummond, D. & Camara S. (2007) What is Qualitative Research, Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 8(1), pp.21-28

Kiger, M. & Varpio, L. (2020) Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131, Medical Teacher, 42(8), pp.846-854

Maslach, C. (2003). Job Burnout: New Directions in Research and Intervention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 189-192.

McNally, P., Irvine, M., Taggart, L., Shevlin, M., & Keesler, J. (2022). Exploring the knowledge base of trauma and trauma informed care of staff working in community residential accommodation for adults with an intellectual disability. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 35( 5), 1162- 1173.

Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (2001) Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support, Journal of Applied Psychology 86: 825-836.

Robinson, K., 2014. Voices from the front line: Social work with refugees and asylum seekers in Australia and the UK. British Journal of social work, 44(6), pp.1602-1620.

Schön, D.A. (1994), The Reflective Practitioner : How Professionals Think in Action, Taylor & Francis Group

Searle, R., Hartog, D.N.D., Weibel, A., Gillespie, N., Six, F., Hatzakis, T. & Skinner, D., (2011) , Trust in the employer: the role of high-involvement work practices and procedural justice in European organizations, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22:5, 1069-1092,

Shannon-Baker, P. (2016). Making Paradigms Meaningful in Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 10(4), 319-33

Skills for Care (2022), The state of the adult social care sector and workforce in England https://www.skillsforcare.org.uk/adult-social-care-workforce-data/Workforce-intelligence/publications/national-information/The-state-of-the-adult-social-care-sector-and-workforce-in-England.aspx [accessed: 7th November 2023]

Wisker, G. (2008), The Postgraduate Research Handbook : Succeed with Your MA, MPhil, EdD and PhD. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Exploring the relationship between conservation of resources and regulatory mode in self-regulation: A qualitative study of mothers caring for children with long-term care needs

Alex Barnes — 2024-03-04

Purpose: This research aims to explore the relationship between regulatory mode and conservation of resources (COR) within the context of self-regulation. It seeks to understand how an individual's assessment or locomotion tendencies and their resource situation interact with and influence each other.

Study design/methodology/approach: A qualitative study was conducted using an interpretivist approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 mothers caring for children with long-term needs. The interviews were analysed using NVivo and Excel to identify themes and evidence related to the research questions.

Findings: For the participant group of mothers, the findings indicate a direct link between assessment and locomotion tendencies, and their resource caravan or reservoirs. Those with locomotion tendencies were more likely to have a strong or positive resource caravan, whereas those with mixed assessment and locomotion tendencies had a limited resource caravan. Five resource groupings or caravans were identified, with positive mindfulness, positive psychology, and time emerging as predominant weak resources, and physical, cognitive, social, and financial resources as dominant positive resources. The study also found a direct link between current resource caravans and positive or negative resource passageways in most participants. The significance of time and social support in both constructs was also highlighted.

Originality/value: This research contributes to the literature by emphasising the importance of considering both regulatory mode and COR in understanding an individual's self-regulation and resource situation. These findings provide insights into the specific resources and their impact on assessment and locomotion tendencies. This study also highlights the role of time and social support in the lives of parent carers. These findings can inform practical approaches to support parents caring for children with long-term illnesses.

Right to health, securitisation of migration and standards of immigration detention in South Africa and Australia.

Tania Wehmeyer — 2024-03-04

Background. Tens of thousands of people are detained globally for reasons related to their immigration status.[1] Some states view immigration detention as a mechanism deterring irregular migrants seeking refuge or attempting an application for asylum, and respond by routinely, rather than exceptionally, detaining them,[2] ignoring the broad recognition that immigration detention is inherently harmful to the health and general well-being of those detained.[1] This transnational doctoral research concerns the comparative socio-legal assessment of the right to health and humane standards of detention of immigration detainees in two countries which experience an influx of migrants, refugees and asylum seekers; one classed as an upper middle-class country on the Development Assistance Committee List of Official Development Assistance Recipients (South Africa) and the other classed as highly developed (Australia).[3] It further aims to investigate the extent to which these two vastly different jurisdictions uphold the rule of law in the context of international human rights law pertaining to the right to health and standards of immigration detention, and the relative efficacy of international human rights instruments to hold offending jurisdictions accountable.
Focus, aim and approach. The study is broadly balanced against South African and Australian immigration detention regulations, through an international human rights law lens whilst considering the actual conditions and treatment of immigrant detainees, with an explicit focus on the right to health. A pragmatist account based on a triangulated (across methods and sources) ‘rule of law’ lens will be created, examining the extent to which South Africa and Australia comply with minimum State obligations to respect human rights norms as it relates to right to health (including access to medical care) and provision of normative standards of immigration detention. The generated narrative will be cognizant of the changing contextual forces of migration into South Africa and Australia, securitization agendas and violations of basic human rights and due process, and additionally, will illustrate various gaps in due process, policy and practice in the application of domestic laws, policies and standards of care. It will also highlight various routes to strategic public litigation, advocacy channels and reforms. The study will garner insights into the most effective means of advocating for change, achieving reforms, informing policies, protocols and detention standard operating procedures, ultimately advancing the rights of those in immigration detention.
Country narratives. South Africa has long been an important destination for migrants from its neighbouring countries and Asia.[4] Migration and cross border movements are increasingly viewed politically and societally using a ‘lens of national security, social instability, and criminality’[5], with rising anti-immigrant sentiment amongst citizens.[6] Despite South Africa’s domestic legislation providing for specific conditions in detention, observers have regularly raised concerns regarding violations of these provisions including overcrowding, inadequate access to health care services, poor nutrition, and the detention of migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers alongside those on remand or sentenced.[7] Excessive use of force by authorities and limited access to legal representation have repeatedly been noted.[7]

In contrast, Australia experiences migration from as far as Sudan, Afghanistan and Iraq,[8] despite its geographical isolation.[9] It is also experiencing increased anti-immigrant sentiment and securitisation agendas,[10] and maintains an immigration detention system which is infamous for being punitive and arbitrary, with a policy of mandatory, indefinite detention and no judicial review of decisions to detain.[9] The lack of consideration of necessity, reasonableness, proportionality and review of a person’s individual needs and vulnerabilities results in detention of vulnerable groups e.g. children and survivors of torture and trauma. There are few normative regulations in place regarding the provision of healthcare, or other special arrangements for vulnerable groups in places of immigration detention, and no measures to reduce the length of detention for vulnerable persons and persons with disabilities.[9]

Preliminary results. Both South Africa’s and Australia’s immigration policies and detention sites, including police cells, proposed border camps [6] and offshore immigration detention facilities [9] have been sharply criticised by various international human rights bodies (e.g. (UN)CESCR, (UN)CAT, UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention). Various international human rights bodies condemned South Africa’s immigration policies and detention sites, inter alia privately operated Lindela Repatriation Centre, police cells and prisons.[4, 6, 7] Conditions are not fit for purpose and continue to fall short of the minimum standards of care.[4] No routine immigration detention surveillance exists in South Africa, and despite having ratified the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention Against Torture (OP-CAT), it is still to implement necessary legislative measures for setting up a National Preventive Mechanism (NPM) (a critical detention monitoring body) to regularly examine closed settings. In comparison, Australia brings together a variety of extreme immigration policies in its immigration detention regime, provides them blanket legal cover and aggressively defends them in the wake of international critique.[9] Refugees are arbitrarily detained in inhumane conditions, lack adequate health care, and experience severe pain and suffering that rises to the level of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or torture.[11] As of January 2022, Australia had failed to establish an NPM in each of its territories as required by the OP-CAT, which it ratified in 2017, with the UN’s Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture cancelling their oversight visit to Australia in 2023 due to them being refused entry into some detention centres.[9, 11]
Contribution and implication. No known study has been conducted in the area of dissecting and analysing these two African- and Asia-Pacific immigration detention systems and standards of detention, triangulated against the three levels of State obligations i.e., respect, protect and fulfil.[12] The work will likely contribute strongly to sensitization around the rights of immigration detainees and is intended to contribute to immigration detention reforms in both countries through publications, sharing of evidence with respective governments, country level NPMs under the OP-CAT protocol, and humanitarian and human rights advocacy organisations operating in the respective countries.
Conclusion. A country’s socio-economic status is not determinant of immigration detention conditions and State parties’ ability / willingness to ‘respect, protect and fulfil’ immigration detainees’ health (and basic human) rights. In the context of right to health and immigration detention, both countries may be in breach of international human rights law, and both Australia and South Africa need policy and legislative reform, as well as the political will to effect implementation. The study will progress to include qualitative data collection (in-depth interviews) and analysis of stakeholders’ socio-cultural understanding of migration forces into South Africa and Australia, gaps in laws, policies, due process and rights assurances, standards of care (including access to and quality of healthcare) and the health profile of people in immigration detention. If possible, a convenience sample of former immigration detainees are to be interviewed about their experiences of immigration detention and their health. This socio- legal assessment will subsequently triangulate and evaluate the indeterminate nature of South African and Australian immigration and refugee regulations, policies and operating procedures in relation to human rights, obligations of the State to uphold the right to health of immigration detainees and normative standards of detention.
References.[1] Global Detention Project (2022) Annual Report: Building Partnerships, Harnessing Data, EndingArbitrary Immigration Detention [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/2022-annual-report-building-partnerships-harnessing-data-ending-arbitrary-immigration-detention [Accessed: 18 August 2023][2] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2014) 2014-2019 Beyond Detention - A GlobalStrategy to support governments to end the detention of asylum-seekers and refugees [online]Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/media/beyond-detention-global-strategy-support-governmentsend-detention-asylum-seekers-and [Accessed 18: October 2023][3] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2023) DAC List of ODA Recipients |Effective for reporting on 2022 and 2023 flows [online] Available at DAC-List-of-ODA-Recipients-for-reporting-2022-23-flows.pdf (oecd.org) [Accessed: 02 November 2023][4] Van Hout, M.C. & Wessels, J. (2023) #ForeignersMustGo versus “in favorem libertatis”: Humanrights violations and procedural irregularities in South African immigration detention law. Journal ofHuman Rights [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2170709 [Accessed: 24April 2023].[5] Ncube, M. (2017) South Africa Steps up Deportation of Asylum Seekers. News Deeply [online]Available at: https://www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/articles/2017/10/17/south-africa-stepsupdeportation-of-asylum-seekers [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[6] Global Detention Project (2021). Immigration Detention in South Africa: Stricter Control ofAdministrative Detention, Increasing Criminal Enforcement of Migration [online] Available at:www.globaldetentionproject.org/immigration-detention-in-south-africa-stricter-control-of-administrative-detention-increasing-criminal-enforcement-of-migration [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[7] Lawyers for Human Rights (2020) Monitoring Policy, Litigious and Legislative Shifts inImmigration Detention in South Africa [online] Available at: https://www.lhr.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Detention-Report-Final-Final-Digital-1.pdf [Accessed: 31 October 2023][8] Australian Home Affairs (2023) Immigration detention statistics [online] Available at:https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-28-february-2023.pdf [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[9] Global Detention Project (2022) Immigration Detention in Australia: Turning Arbitrary Detentioninto a Global Brand [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/countries/asiapacific/australia [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[10] Ibekwe, S. O. (2022) Preventing people from risking their lives at sea’: Forced migration and thesecuritization of asylum seekers in Australia. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics [online]Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911211032514 [Accessed: 02 November 2023][11] Barnes, J. (2022) Suffering to Save Lives: Torture, Cruelty, and Moral Disengagement inAustralia’s Offshore Detention Centres [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac041 [Accessed 30 October 2023][12] United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2000) General Comment No.14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12 of the Covenant), 11 August2000, E/C.12/2000/4 [online] Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d0.html [Accessed: 24 April 2023]

Why did it happen to me? Reflecting on overcoming the inevitable doctoral journey speed-bumps

Michael Drummond — 2024-03-04

Introduction

Whilst the main objective in undertaking a Doctorate in Business Administration (DBA) is to conduct research, another key component is to critically reflect on the journey the researcher has gone on. For a researcher enrolled onto a DBA, there is ample opportunity to write, present and conduct research, notably on the topic that is being researched. However, for critical reflection, it can often be seen as a challenge amongst peers (Fook and Gardner, 2007). It is sometimes seen as an end goal or a finalisation of the doctoral research process. Whilst it is encouraged to practice reflection throughout the experience whether writing a journal or note taking following supervision (Williams et al., 2012), it can be argued that there is no defined opportune time to demonstrate reflection, in a safe environment, within academia to practice the outcomes of reflection.

Using this conference as a time to take check on the journey so far, apply reflection and to present the findings, can put the researcher in a vulnerable position. However, it also ensures a safe place to prepare for the final part of the DBA whilst being able to apply and demonstrate the tools and techniques expected in the final chapter of the thesis.

This extended abstract provides a brief overview of how reflection is applied in research, considers two reflective models in Gibbs (1988) and Kolb (1984) and applies one based on the 18 months of the researchers DBA journey. However, the element of critical reflection, when considering the development of practice following reflection (Høyrup, 2004) will be omitted until the completion of the DBA research when the data analysis and discussion has been concluded.

The Application of reflection in research

The origins of reflective practice are often disputed due to its application in varying disciplines and a person’s perspective (Hickson, 2011). However, many academics appear to conclude that work from Dewey (1910) and later developed further by Schön (1983) is where reflection had cemented its place as a concept (Fook and Gardner, 2007; Johns, 2005). Although, it is argued Schön’s work has been seen to be only seminal work and that reflective practice is yet to be underpinned as a truly defined practice (Kinsella, 2009).

Irrespective of origin and definition, it can be concluded that, traditionally, reflective practice had been seen as a theoretical concept. Whilst it provided clarity on what it means, it could be argued that it provided little direction when it comes to application. As such, models have been developed to allow people to apply reflection from their learning. A model of note is Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle (1984). The cycle highlights the need of fully immersing oneself in new experiences, reflecting on them from many angles, drawing concepts and lessons from the reflections, and using these lessons to inform future experiences for meaningful learning to take place (McLeod, 2017).

Other models have evolved from Kolb’s input. Gibb’s Reflective Cycle (1988) sought to bring more structure to reflective practice following Kolb’s model with the introduction of more stages. It also permits introspection during an event (reflection-in-action) as well as following it (reflection-on-action) whereas Schön (1984) gave more attention to the latter. As such, this extended abstract adopts Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle (1988) and follows a first person perspective.

Applying Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle (1988)

3.1. Description

Undertaking the DBA is a new experience for me. It is the first time I have worked academically at Level 8 which is required should I wish to pursue career progression both as a researcher or in management. The scholarly-practitioner ethos of a DBA placed this opportunity well for the progression avenues available to me in the future.

3.2. Feelings

I was excited to do the DBA and the excitement is still there. However, having been fixated from my idea early on in my journey left room for frustrations should any barriers occur, that would derail or halt any progress towards my self-imposed deadline for completion. When progress was good, I didn’t, and still don’t, see this as a celebration but more if “I am doing this right”. Thoughts like this are regular for me and my reflective blog often has the theme of “imposter syndrome” in play. This did start to ease off but then challenges regarding my data analysis methods had brought this back and had me questioning my pace of completion and therefore again me thinking “am I doing this right?” coming back into my mind.

3.3. Evaluation

I consider myself an open person, often seeking for help should barriers occur, and I am no different in the DBA. I am often praised for my progress and topic idea, but I have never been one to take this praise on board and dismiss it as expected in my role of scholarly-practitioner and seeking what is next to be done for my progress. This can manifest into stress if a “speed-bump” appears in the journey. I talk down stress with humour as a coping mechanism and this is a key standout in my reflective blog though my attempt as being light-hearted in my narrative and use of meme to visualise my thoughts.

3.4. Analysis

The route cause to many of my frustrations at being “derailed” stem from my self-imposed deadline for completion. I have always been someone to get tasks completed early to allow time for revision and reflection. However, the latter rarely occurs. I require a clear structure and plan end to end and have been guilty as seeing my DBA as another project as opposed to a new venture into research. Framing this as, indeed a journey, and not another tick in the box will relieve any stresses of barriers and see them as lessons learnt and considerations for the future.

3.5. Conclusion

I need to reign in my own expectations but also appreciate that I am open to feedback that has started to allow me to re-frame the critical incidents that have occurred in my DBA so far. I also need to take this reflection as a critical incident in giving me a reality check into celebrating my progress and to remain excited about what is to come.

3.6. Action Plan

I will be taking the opportunity to reflect in more than just the DBA to form the habit as this experience has shown me the value in it, mostly for my mindset. As my data and analysis discussion develops, I need to start taking my reflection and evolving it to critical reflection and defining the impact my research is having on practice to remove the “imposter syndrome” and wear the label of Level 8 with pride and appreciation that I am at the level I expect to be at.

Reflecting on reflecting

Allowing the time to reflect has given me the opportunity to take a step back and evaluate the mid-way point of my DBA journey. I started a reflective blog at the start of my DBA but only seen it as a diary. It was only when I analysed the content that I started to see the pattern I was setting myself up for; being keen and excited, but rigid in my approach and stressing about any barriers that came my way and reverting to “I am not doing this right”. Yet, all the barriers so far have been overcome and resulted with better clarity of my research. Gibb’s Reflective Cycle (1988) provided me with the structural comfort I like but gave me the prompts to go further and provide me a mechanism that is starting to challenge my default negative view of barriers and see them as pieces being put together. These pieces form a cohesive reflection of where I am now and where I plan to get to with the occasional reminder that “speed-bumps” happen and overcoming them is only beneficial and doesn’t mean “I am wrong”.

References

Dewey, J., (1910), How we think, Boston: DC Heath

Fook, J., & Gardner, F., (2007), Practicing critical reflection: A resource handbook, London: Open University Press.

Ghaye, T., (2010), Teaching and learning through reflective practice: A practical guide for positive action, Routledge.

Gibbs, G., (1988), Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods, Oxford: Oxford Further Education Unit.

Hickson, H., (2011) Critical reflection: Reflecting on learning to be reflective, Reflective practice, 12(6), pp.829-839.

Høyrup, S., (2004), Reflection as a core process in organisational learning, Journal of workplace learning, 16(8), pp.442-454.

Johns, C., (2005), Balancing the winds, Reflective Practice, 6(1), pp.67-84.

Kinsella, E. A., (2009), Professional knowledge and the epistemology of professional practice, Nursing Philosophy, 11, pp.3-14.

Kolb, D. A., (1984), Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McLeod, S., (2017), Kolb's learning styles and experiential learning cycle, (online), available at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html, Accessed: 02/11/2023.

Schön, D., (1983), The reflective practitioner - How professionals think in action, New York: Basic Books.

Williams, K., Woolliams, M. & Spiro, J., (2020), Reflective writing, Bloomsbury Publishing.

Culture and leader-follower relationships in policing

Naomi Davis-Crane — 2024-03-04

Introduction

The financial year 2022-2023 saw the highest number of voluntary police leavers overall and as a proportion of the workforce since records began in 2003 (The Home Office, 2023). Despite initiatives to improve matters, research of police leavers continues to highlight poor leadership as a dominant influence upon the decision to resign (Charman and Bennett, 2022). Including a perceived lack of support, autonomy, and voice in leavers relationships with leaders. This study seeks to contribute to addressing this situation through examining the link between police culture and leader-follower relationships. Consequently, it is relevant to police personnel, but also to the myriad of organisations, Government bodies and regulators associated with policing today. Many of which have been involved in the multiple reviews over the last decade which have advocated for the transformation of police leadership toward more participative modes.

Literature Review

Leader Member Exchange (LMX) is theory of leader-follower relations predicated upon long term relationships in which the socioemotional exchange and the associated perception of obligation and reciprocation are ongoing processes (Shore et al., 2006). High quality LMX relationships are characterised by greater degrees of mutual influence, reward, engagement, trust, communication, commitment, support, and respect (Bauer and Green, 1996). Given the link between police leadership and the decision to quit it is important to observe the interplay of LMX, organisational commitment and procedural injustice. In high quality LMX relationships the leader encourages employee commitment to the organisation (Graen, 1976) through frequent interactions and development opportunities, whilst high quality LMX is also proposed to result in a higher perception of procedural justice (Dulebohn et al., 2012).

Follower and leader characteristics, and context will influence LMX quality (Dulebohn et al., 2012). Individuals will generally show greater attraction toward those with whom they are similar (Byrne, 1971). Including in respect of their interests, attitudes, and values. Which in the work context may encompass facets of the organisation’s culture (van Breukelen, Schyns and le Blanc, 2006). LMX consensus will be higher in organisational cultures associated with supportive leadership (Tordera et al., 2008). Further, organisational culture influences the development of trust in relationships through shared values (Farnese, Benevene and Barbieri, 2022) which are also aspects of high quality LMX relationships (Markham et al., 2010).

The concept of police culture concerns the norms, values and beliefs shared by policing practitioners (Bacon, 2022). Including the wealth of knowledge and experience upon which practitioners draw and interpret in their daily lives when dealing with the unique challenges presented by their roles (Cockcroft, 2020). The central tenets of police culture including the possession of specific values, the importance of identity, the meaning ascribed to police work and an action orientation; coupled with characteristics of pragmatism, solidarity, cynicism, mission focus, machismo, and conservatism (Caveney et al., 2020). Classical approaches emphasising adherence to hierarchy, discipline, command and control ethos (Myhill and Bradford, 2013). In addition to the strong in-group mentality and internal solidarity expected of police personnel (Myhill and Bradford, 2013) which include suspicions of leadership and their ability to deliver positive change in the organisation (Villiers, 2003). All of which will have significant influence on leader-follower relationships.

Whilst the prevalence of these characteristics continues to be recognised, greater subtlety has emerged in academic and professional discourse as understanding of the influences on culture develops (Caveney et al., 2020). Particularly in respect of the individual differences between practitioners and the consequences of these for behaviour (Ingram et al., 2013). Such that previous simple depictions of police culture are increasingly superseded by more complex and contingent conceptualisations (Caveney et al., 2020). Including recognition of the social, organisational, political, and technological factors which will influence the culture of a policing organisation and their dynamism (Reiner, 2015).

Given the link between organisational culture and LMX, the author proposes that the culture a police professional experiences in their working environment is a function of the overall culture of policing, the unique culture of the specific police force in which they work and the subculture(s) of their individual division, unit and/or team. These are mutually influencing, as well as collectively and individually influenced by the wide range of factors exerting forces upon culture. In turn, each of these cultural facets will manifest in their own distinctive values, norms, and discourse. Though there may be commonalities between them given their inter-dependency. Collectively, these cultures will influence the development and quality of leader-follower exchange relationships, though individual and contextual factors will also play their part.

Research Question, Aims & Objectives

Given the interplay of leader-follower relationships, leadership in policing and organisational cultures, this project will seek to answer the following research question: From the perspective of practitioners, what factors influence leader-follower relationships in the policing context?

This research project therefore aims to explore leader-follower interactions in the policing context through developing understanding as to the influences upon these. Consequently, the project seeks to achieve the following objectives:

To engage police practitioners in the exploration of their in-work relationships with colleagues across the rank, role, and specialisation structures.
To explore the potential existence of themes amongst influences upon interpersonal relationships, including the extent to which these may have a positive or negative impact.

Contribution To Knowledge & Professional Practice

This is potentially the first research project to explore influences upon interpersonal relationships in policing, including the potential consequences of police culture upon the dynamics of engagement between leaders and followers. Any recommendations arising from this research therefore have the potential to address, at least in part, the challenges identified by Charman and Bennett (2022) in respect of perceived organisational injustice. Through their incorporation into leadership development programmes and wider professional guidance. Whilst also recognising the importance of leadership development for all which conceptualises leadership as a process encompassing all parties to the relationship (Day et al., 2021). In addition to generating conversation and reflection amongst police practitioners in respect of their interactions. Increasing the likelihood of the benefits of enhanced interpersonal relationships being more widely realised in policing, including improving retention.

Further, the study seeks to potentially contribute to the fields of police and leadership studies in three areas. Firstly, responding to the recognition by Oc et al. (2023), amongst others, that it is necessary to examine both sides of the leader-follower dyad to gain a holistic understanding of leadership. Particularly when investigating themes integral to this research proposal, including interactions, exchanges and reciprocity between leaders and followers, and the characteristics of dyadic relationships (Kim et al., 2020). Secondly, Oc et al. (2023) recognise limited attention in empirical work to specific follower characteristics and their influence on relationships with leaders. Particularly follower behaviours and group interactions. Given that both aspects are significantly influenced by organisational and/or occupational culture (Schein, 1997), this research therefore has the potential to expand understanding of their influence on leader-follower relationships. Finally, this study aspires to extend the work of Charman and Bennett (2022) in relation to perceptions of organisational justice in policing, particularly in respect to the behaviour of leaders.

Methods

This two stage multi-method qualitative study will engage participants from two police forces in virtual semi-structured interviews and focus groups to explore their experiences of and perspectives on police leadership and culture. Participants will be drawn from across the ranks, roles, and divisions of each force. The results will be thematically analysed between phases one and two, to inform the latter which will include the generation of ideas for future leadership development initiatives.

References

Bacon, M. (2022) Desistance from criminalisation: police culture and new directions in drugs policing. Policing and Society, 324, pp.522–539.

Bauer, T.N. and Green, S.G. (1996) Development of a Leader-member exchange: a longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal, 396, pp.1538–1567.

van Breukelen, W., Schyns, B. and Le Blanc, P. (2006) Leader-member exchange theory and research: accomplishments and future challenges. Leadership, 23, pp.295–316.

Caveney, N., Scott, P., Williams, S. and Howe-Walsh, L. (2020) Police reform, austerity and ‘cop culture’: time to change the record? Policing and Society, 3010, pp.1210–1225.

Charman, S. and Bennett, S. (2022) Voluntary resignations from the police service: the impact of organisational and occupational stressors on organisational commitment. Policing and Society, 322, pp.159–178.

Cockcroft, T. (2020) Police Occupational Culture. Bristol: Policy Press.

Day, D. V., Riggio, R.E., Tan, S.J. and Conger, J.A. (2021) Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: Theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 325, p.101557.

Dulebohn, J.H., Bommer, W.H., Liden, R.C., Brouer, R.L. and Ferris, G.R. (2012) A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 386, pp.1715–1759.

Farnese, M.L., Benevene, P. and Barbieri, B. (2022) Learning to trust in social enterprises: The contribution of organisational culture to trust dynamics. Journal of Trust Research, 122, pp.153–178.

Graen, G., (1976) Role making processes within complex organizations. In: M.D. Dunnette, ed., Handbook in industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand Mcnally, pp.1201–1245.

Kim, J., Yammarino, F.J., Dionne, S.D., Eckardt, R., Cheong, M., Tsai, C.-Y., Guo, J. and Park, J.W. (2020) State-of-the-science review of leader-follower dyads research. The Leadership Quarterly, 311, p.101306.

Markham, S.E., Yammarino, F.J., Murry, W.D. and Palanski, M.E. (2010) Leader–member exchange, shared values, and performance: Agreement and levels of analysis do matter. The Leadership Quarterly, 213, pp.469–480.

Myhill, A. and Bradford, B., (2013) Overcoming cop culture? Organizational justice and police officers’ attitudes toward the public. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 362, pp.338–356.

Oc, B., Chintakananda, K., Bashshur, M.R. and Day, D. V. (2023) The study of followers in leadership research: A systematic and critical review. The Leadership Quarterly, 341, p.101674.

Reiner, R. (2015) Revisiting the Classics: Three Seminal Founders of the Study of Policing: Michael Banton, Jerome Skolnick and Egon Bittner. Policing and Society, 253, pp.308–327.

Scandura, T.A. and Pellegrini, E.K. (2008) Trust and Leader—Member Exchange. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 152, pp.101–110.

Schein, E. (1997) Organizational Culture & Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schyns, B. and Day, D. (2010) Critique and review of leader–member exchange theory: Issues of agreement, consensus, and excellence. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 191, pp.1–29.

Shore, L.M., Tetrick, L.E., Lynch, P. and Barksdale, K., (2006) Social and economic exchange: construct development and validation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 364, pp.837–867.

Tordera, N., González-Romá, V. and Peiró, J.M. (2008) The moderator effect of psychological climate on the relationship between leader – member exchange (LMX) quality and role overload. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 171, pp.55–72.

Villiers, P. (2003) Philosophy, doctrine, and leadership: some core beliefs. In: R. Adlam and P. Villiers, eds., Police Leadership in the 21st Century. Winchester: Waterside Press, pp.15–33.

Exploring employee wellbeing and remote work. Developing an organisational framework for healthy hybrid work.

Gemma Dale — 2024-03-04

Introduction

Following the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent demand for ongoing remote work (Alexander et al, 2021; Taneja et al, 2021; Chung et al, 2020) hybrid forms of work are predicted to become a core feature of the global labour market (Microsoft, 2022; Bloom et al 2021). In January 2023, 28% of UK employees were working in a hybrid way (ONS, 2023); a CIPD (2023) report found 83% of organisations were offering hybrid work. In contrast, prior to the pandemic, less than 5% of UK employees worked mainly from home; in the 40 years prior to 2020 remote work had grown by only three percentage points (Felstead and Reuschke (2021).

The outcomes of hybrid work, on both organisations and employees, are unknown. The extant literature on remote work draws predominantly from a time when remote work was undertaken by the minority, limited to specific job roles and industries, or from during the pandemic when homeworking was involuntary. Existing research has been described as ‘fragmented and variable’ (Athanasiadou and Theriou, 2021). To date, studies have not been undertaken at a scale that would enable extrapolation to generally applicable conclusions, limiting the potential for the provision of practical advice for employees or managers (Messenger, 2019).

Wellbeing outcomes of remote work, including the impact on physical and mental health (Lundberg and Lindfords, 2002; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003), the impact of remote work technologies (Gualano et al, 2023) and the demands of remote work and their impact (Ter Hoeven and Van Zoonen, 2015), are acknowledged research gaps.

Literature

Four out of five organisations who intend to offer opportunities for hybrid work post pandemic include the potential to improve employee wellbeing as a key consideration (ONS, 2022). However, the relationship between remote work and wellbeing is complex and the extant evidence contradictory. It is not possible to state conclusively whether employee wellbeing is positively or negatively influenced by remote work. Research has established remote work has the potential to have both positive and negative effects (Wohrman and Ebner, 2021); for example, remote work has been found to reduce stress levels (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007) as well as increase them (Arvola and Kristjuhan, 2015). Overall, it is suggested remote work does have a net benefit on employee health, improving it more than damaging it (Crawford, 2022), attributed in part to its capacity to provide increased autonomy and control (Taveres, 2017). Remote work is generally considered ‘more good than bad for individuals’ (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007), however it cannot be inferred that it will result in wellbeing benefits for all remote workers (Anderson and Kaplan, 2014).

Research Objectives

There is a lack of knowledge about the health and wellbeing outcomes of hybrid work as well as the factors which might influence such outcomes. Furthermore, there is a lack of evidence-based guidance for organisations in respect of supporting wellbeing in hybrid work. This study therefore aims to:

Develop a detailed understanding of the positive and negative impacts of hybrid forms of remote work on employee wellbeing as identified by previous research.
Explore the perspectives of employees undertaking hybrid work and its influence on their subjective wellbeing, determining the factors that influence hybrid worker wellbeing outcomes.
Develop an understanding of how organisations are supporting the wellbeing of hybrid workers and the effectiveness of these approaches.
Create a framework that can be utilised by organisations to ensure that hybrid work is healthy.

Research Methods

This study will adopt a pragmatic philosophy, utilising a mixed-method approach. Phase one will consist of a qualitative and quantitative survey of hybrid workers which will be analysed thematically. Phase two will consist of semi-structured interviews with senior HR professionals whose organisations undertake hybrid work. Results will be triangulated to test the efficacy and usability of the framework, a validation of which will take place with a group of senior HR leaders.

Practical importance of the study

This study will advance knowledge on the issue of employee wellbeing and hybrid work in a future of work where remote work is taking place at scale. The development of the framework will enable organisations to both manage and mitigate the potential for negative impacts upon employee wellbeing, providing both insight and opportunities for action.

References

Alexander, A., De Smet, A., Langstaff, M. and Ravid, D., 2021. What employees are saying about the future of remote work. McKinsey & Company.

Almarcha, M., Balagué, N. and Torrents, C., 2021. Healthy teleworking: towards personalized exercise recommendations. Sustainability, 13(6), p.3192.

Anderson, A.J., Kaplan, S.A. and Vega, R.P. (2015) The impact of telework on emotional experience: When, and for whom, does telework improve daily affective well-being?, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(6), pp.882-897.

Arvola, R. and Kristjuhan, Ü. (2015) Workload and health of older academic personnel using telework, Agronomy Research, 13(3), pp.741-749.

Athanasiadou, C. and Theriou, G. (2021) Telework: Systematic literature review and future research agenda. Heliyon, 7(10), p.e08165.
Bloom, N., Han, R. and Liang, J., 2022. How hybrid working from home works out (No. w30292). National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Integrated Care System Leadership: A Realist Evaluation

Lisa Knight — 2024-03-04

Introduction

Health and social care services in England have moved towards a system of partnership working known as Integrated Care Systems (ICSs) consisting of all NHS Provider Trusts, Primary Care Services including GP Practices, Local Authorities, Care Providers, and Voluntary, Community and Social Enterprise organisations involved in the provision of health and social care. As complex systems covering large geographical areas, ICSs are led by senior leaders to improve population health, reduce health inequities, and enhance value for money. Given their recent formation, little is known about their leadership. Available sources are either dated within the academic literature or are described in the grey literature with little reference to theoretical or empirical foundations. This research is intended to contribute to the gap in theoretical and practical knowledge by developing a framework to explain effective leadership in ICSs.

Aim, Research Questions, and Objectives

2.1 Aim

To evaluate leadership in Cheshire & Merseyside ICS and provide a framework on effective leadership in ICSs.

2.2 Research Question(s)

How does ICSs leadership work, for whom, and in what circumstances?

What are the activities and behaviour of leadership utilised by senior leaders within an ICS?
Which contextual factors influence these activities and behaviours?
Which Context-Mechanisms-Outcomes (CMO) configurations explain leadership within an ICS?

2.3 Objectives

To identify senior leaders' leadership activities and behaviours in an ICS.
To identify the contextual factors that influence the activities and behaviours leaders utilise within an ICS.
To utilise context (C), mechanisms (M) and outcome (O) chains to explain what works (outcome), how (mechanisms) and under what conditions (context).
To develop a framework that explains effective leadership in ICSs
To provide recommendations for practice that support effective leadership of ICSs.

Justification & Literature Review

Within both the academic and grey literature there is a general agreement that leadership and leadership approaches are critical factors in the ability of organisations to implement, develop, and sustain integrated care; however, despite the whole-scale implementation of this approach to health and social care commissioning and delivery across England limited empirical studies have been conducted. Research in the wider field has focused on the skills, qualities, and abilities of leaders rather than the action and behaviour of leadership, tending to consider who a leader is rather than what they do (Sims et al., 2021, p.13), which limits the ability of ICSs to understand and utilise leadership practices that respond to the complex needs of partnership working across systems. Successful integration requires a combination of strong leadership and governance from senior leaders at the system level across health and social care (Asthana et al., 2020). Furthermore, research examining the functioning of integrated health systems has identified leadership ability as a key factor (Bhat et al., 2022). It has also been suggested that an ICS's operation and sustainability are significantly influenced by a leader's ability to move from an organisation-centred leadership style to one that focuses on leading across multiple organisations (Charles et al., 2018). However, there appears to be an implicit assumption within the literature that senior leaders can apply their existing leadership approach to the newly formed structures and governance of ICSs with limited guidance underpinning the actions or function of leadership styles.

Theoretical Foundation

Phase 1 (Realist Review) of this study will draw on theories of collective and systems leadership, the results of a realist review, and primary data collection to develop initial theories of effective leadership in ICSs; these will be refined and tested in Phase 2 (Realist Evaluation). The complexity of ICSs alongside an identified lack of theoretical foundations for understanding their leadership, supports the adoption of a realist evaluation (Greenhalgh et al., 2009). Furthermore, given the emerging nature of ICSs, a realist evaluation can go further than asking ‘does it work’ by asking ‘what works, how, in which conditions and for whom’ (Pawson and Tilley, 1997, p.210). Realist research is underpinned by a critical realist ontology; one that takes the position that there is a ‘real’ world that is independent of our experience or interpretation of it. Epistemologically, this research takes a position that focuses on causal explanations which assumes underlying causal processes, termed mechanisms, can have multiple outcomes and that different contexts can precipitate different actions or events. It is concerned with developing and testing 'programme theories'; multiple causal chains describing the context, mechanisms, and outcomes of a particular phenomenon, in this case, leadership within an ICS.

Research Design

A case study strategy has been selected as it aligns with a realist approach to research and is ‘particularly suited to research questions which require a detailed understanding of the social or organisational processes because of the rich data collected in context’ (Hartley, 2004, p.323). In line with a theory-driven realist approach a multi-method qualitative approach to data collection has been adopted to allow for the richness of contexts and mechanisms to be examined; programme theories will be tested and refined through non-participant observations, document analysis of strategic publications, and interviews with key stakeholders within the ICS.

Initial Theories of Effective ICS Leadership (Phase 1 Findings)

Table 1: Initial theories of effective ICS leadership utilising Doing Things Differently: Rethinking Leadership Behaviours as an organising framework for theories (NHS North West Leadership Academy, 2021).

Delivering	Effective Integrated Care System leaders hold themselves and others to account for improving outcomes for the local population. They utilise available intelligence to take actions that support targeting and prioritisation of local communities. Effective Integrated Care System leaders support and encourage learning, curiosity, and calculated risk-taking enabling innovative approaches that lead to service improvements.
Being	Effective Integrated Care System Leaders communicate a clear vision, fostering a sense of purpose across the system regarding the achievement of agreed Integrated Care System outcomes.
Leading & Visioning	Effective Integrated Care System leaders have a clear vision that promotes a sense of mutual accountability, providing opportunities for others to develop, make decisions, and take ownership of problem solving through the engagement of all partners in the reduction of health and social care inequalities
Relating & Communicating	Effective Integrated Care System leaders build relationships at all levels of the system, they promote partnership and collaboration. Leaders encourage a collective agreement about what needs to be achieved and communicate openly about how and why decisions are made

Relevance & Contribution

This study will provide valuable information to those who work within such systems to help them understand and support leadership development more effectively. Furthermore, this study is expected to contribute to closing the gap in the academic literature regarding the leadership of ICSs by using a novel approach to leadership evaluation; in doing so it will make explicit the underlying causal processes and influencing contexts that shape leadership in ICSs, providing a clear and accessible framework to explain effective leadership practice.

References

Asthana, S., Gradinger, F., Elston, J., Martin, S. and Byng, R., (2020) Capturing the Role of Context in Complex System Change: An Application of the Canadian Context and Capabilities for Integrating Care (CCIC) Framework to an Integrated Care Organisation in the UK. International Journal of Integrated Care, 201, p.4.

Bhat, K., Easwarathasan, R., Jacob, M., Poole, W., Sapaetharan, V., Sidhu, M. and Thomas, A., (2022) Identifying and understanding the factors that influence the functioning of integrated healthcare systems in the NHS: a systematic literature review. BMJ Open, [online] 124. Available at: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049296.

Charles, A., Wenzel, L., Kershaw, M., Ham, C. and Walsh, N., (2018) A year of integrated care systems: reviewing the journey so far. The Kings Fund.

Deffenbaugh, J., (2018) Becoming an integrated (accountable) care system. British Journal of Healthcare Management, 244, pp.175-180.

Erens, B., Wistow, G., Mounier-Jack, S., Douglas, N., Jones, L., Manacorda, T. and Mays, N., (2016) Early evaluation of the Integrated Care and Support Pioneers Programme. Policy Innovation Research Unit, p.183.

Evans, J.M., Daub, S., Goldhar, J., Wojtak, A. and Purbhoo, D., (2016) Leading Integrated Health and Social Care Systems: Perspectives from Research and Practice. Healthcare Quarterly, 184, pp.30-35.

González-Ortiz, L.G., Calciolari, S., Goodwin, N. and Stein, V., (2018) The Core Dimensions of Integrated Care: A Literature Review to Support the Development of a Comprehensive Framework for Implementing Integrated Care. International Journal of Integrated Care, 183, p.10.

Goodwin, N. and Smith, J., (2011) The evidence base for integrated care. [online] Available at: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/audio-video/evidence-base-integrated-care [Accessed 16 Apr. 2022].

Greenhalgh, T., Humphrey, C., Hughes, J., Macfarlane, F., Butler, C. and Pawson, R., (2009) How Do You Modernize a Health Service? A Realist Evaluation of Whole-Scale Transformation in London: Modernizing a Health Service, in London. Milbank Quarterly, 872, pp.391-416.
Ham, C., Smith, J. and Eastmure, E., (2011) Commissioning integrated care in a liberated NHS. The Nuffield Trust, p.68.

Hartley, J., (2004) Case study research. In: C. Cassell and G. Symon, eds. London: Sage Publications Ltd, pp.323-333.

Maruthappu, M., Hasan, A. and Zeltner, T., (2015) Enablers and Barriers in Implementing Integrated Care. Health Systems & Reform, 14, pp.250-256.

NHS North West Leadership Academy, (2021) Doing Things Differently: Rethinking Leadership Behaviours. [online] Available at: https://www.nwacademy.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/resource_files/System%20Leadership%20Behaviours_Indicators.pdf [Accessed 21 Nov. 2022].

Pawson, R. and Tilley, N., (1997) Realistic evaluation. London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage.

Sims, S., Fletcher, S., Brearley, S., Ross, F., Manthorpe, J. and Harris, R., (2021) What does Success Look Like for Leaders of Integrated Health and Social Care Systems? a Realist Review. International Journal of Integrated Care, 214, p.26.

Tweed, A., Singfield, A., Taylor, J.R.A., Gilbert, L. and Mount, P., (2018) Creating allegiance: leading transformational change within the NHS. BMJ Leader, 23, pp.110-114.

Wistow, G., Gaskins, M., Holder, H. and Smith, J., (2016) Why Implementing Integrated Care is so much harder than designing it: experience in North West London. England. International Journal of Integrated Care, 166, p.308.

Editorial

Foster Scott — 2024-03-04

Doctoral research within the faculty is world leading. This is evidenced in the latest Postgraduate Research Experience Survey (2023), where 90 percent of our doctoral researchers, both PhD and DBA, said they are satisfied overall with their doctoral programme, far exceeding national averages.

We are passionate about developing a supportive research community, creating a culture for critical thinking and opening opportunities for discussing your research. Through this we hope to enable our candidates to network with others and disseminate their research at successful research conferences. Engaging with this opportunity for candidates is crucial to their doctoral journey as it encourages you to gain a greater clarity on the main argument, or story, you are trying to communicate in your research. To effectively communicate your research to others requires you articulate your research in a focused and engaging manner, which takes practice and critical friends.

Our Faculty Doctoral Conferences integrates candidates from across the Faculty of Business and Law and from the DBA and PhD programmes. The opportunity to share your research to a room full of diverse thinkers makes you must really think about how you can best tell your story to people who might not be from your primary research community. However, as this is a doctoral conference, you could say, ‘we are all in it together’, everyone is currently going through the doctoral journey of testing out ideas and practicing how best to communicate ideas. Therefore, this is a supportive community to test out what does and does not work.

For this reason, this year our keynote speaker was Dr. Mollie Evens-Bryde, a recent Liverpool Business School PhD graduate. Mollie shared her experience of completing the PhD, the opportunities and challenges that can come with completing a doctorate. Mollie, discussed explicitly about the PhD journey and how it presented numerous challenges, from navigating complex research methodologies to managing time effectively. The conversation from Mollie highlighted the demands sustained in maintaining motivation amidst setbacks and failures; balancing the doctorate and personal life which can be daunting including the pressure to publish and present findings adds to the stress. However, Mollie was delighted with the programme and wished she had spent longer on the programme.

Thank you to everyone involved: our doctoral researchers, supervisors, cross-faculty attendees, friends of LJMU, and our doctoral administrators who have worked extremely hard to ensure the day runs as successfully as it possibly can.